Project report on crude oil processing - Technology Book - Feasibility Report - Market Survey - Industrial Report

CRUDE RICE BRAN OIL (SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS)

EIRI Team — Tue, 10 Jan 2023 10:52:38 +0000

During the polishing process of the rice, a unique vegetable oil rich in antioxidants produced from the outer layer of rice is what we called Rice bran oil (RBO). The studies around the globe have confirmed the cholesterol lowering properties due to presence of unique nutraceutical in this oil known as oryzanol & tocotrienols. The crude rice bran oil is mainly composed of glycerides (80%) while phospholipids, glycolipids, free fatty acids and waxes are also present in less quantity. RBO is extensively used as premium edible oil in most of the Asian countries. Rice Bran contains around 20-22 Wt% oil depending on the Rice variety and the milling process utilized.

India is the second largest producer of Rice in the world. Our current production is in excess of 100 Million Tons. In India Paddy occupies the first place among all crops both in Area and Production. The crop occupies about 37% of the total cropped area and 44% of total production of food grains in India. West Bengal has the highest area under Rice Cultivation followed by AP. Punjab with a much smaller area under Rice has the highest yield.

Modern Milling process, like par boiling of the paddy, can deactivate the lipolytic enzyme and ensure oil quality in Bran does not deteriorate. Further, having extraction plants in close proximity also helps. It is worth noting that the quality of Oil once it is extracted does not deteriorate.

Rice bran oil is known as the healthiest oil on the world. It contains vitamins, antioxidants, nutrients and is trans-fat free. It can help lower cholesterol, fight blood diseases and enhance the immune system.

Rice Bran oil can be used to fry, sauté salad dressing, baking and wherever we use cooking oil. Rice bran oil has best balance of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fat as recommended by the World Health Organization.

Rice bran oil has a very high smoke (burn) point, making it perfect for deep frying, pan or stir frying and is a premium choice for the replacement of hydrogenated oil containing trans-fat now being used in deep fryers.

RBO unsaponifiables fraction is rich in vitamin E complex, tocopherols and tocotrienols, a unique antioxidant known as gamma oryzanol, high quantities of phytosterols, polyphenols and squalene. RBO has a very good shelf life compared to other cooking oils because of these antioxidants. These compounds are nutritionally very valuable and it has been shown to be responsible for the hypercholesterolemic effect. Hence, RBO not only has a good fatty acid profile, but also is a rich source of antioxidants and micronutrients.

RBO in the diet significantly reduces LDL cholesterol and triglycerides; it increases HDL cholesterol (good cholesterol), inhibits platelet aggregation and prevents cardiovascular diseases. Clinical studies from Japan, India and the USA have confirmed these results and named RBO as “Health Oil”. In every 1% reduction in cholesterol, there was a 2% decrease in the risk of coronary heart disease. Thus RBO in the diet significantly reduces cholesterol without any side effects.

It is intended to prepare a Feasibility Report to install 30000 Tons/Year Rice Bran Processing facility as a Green Field Project for the production of Crude Rice Bran Oil and Rice bran Deoiled Cake as by product..

The post CRUDE RICE BRAN OIL (SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS) appeared first on EIRI - eBooks and Project Reports.

CRUDE OIL REFINING

EIRI Team — Mon, 29 Apr 2019 06:15:31 +0000

INTRODUCTION
BASICS OF CRUDE OIL
TYPICAL APPROXIMATE CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES AND
GASOLINE POTENTIAL OF VARIOUS CRUDES
PROPERTIES
OVERVIEW OF CRUDE OIL RESERVES
GLOBAL MARKET POSITION OF CRUDE OIL REFINING
CRUDE OIL REFINING SCENARIO IN AFGHANISTAN
USES AND APPLICATIONS
B.I.S. SPECIFICATION
SEQUENCES IN CRUDE OIL FEFINING
REFINING OF PETROLEUM CRUDE OIL
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
VACUUM DISTILLATION
CRACKING
PROCESSING & REFINING CRUDE OIL
FIGURE: CRUDE OIL DISTILLATION
FIGURE: IMPORTANT PROCESSES OF A REFINERY
PRODUCTS MADE FROM A BARREL OF CRUDE OIL (GALLONS)
FIGURE: PRODUCTS MADE FROM CRUDE OIL
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF CRUDE OIL REFINING
PROCESS DETAILS
BASIS STEPS IN CRUDE OIL REFINING
DISTILLATION
CRACKING
TREATING
REFORMING
PRETREATMENT OF CRUDE OIL
DETAILS OF ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
PREVENTION METHOD OF CORROSION IN CRUDE OIL REFINERIES
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND SAFETY CONCERN IN CRUDE OIL REFINERY
SUPPLIERS OF RAW MATERIALS
SUPPLIERS OF PLANT AND MACHINERY
BOILERS
COOLING TOWER
HEAT EXCHANGER
STORAGE TANKS
MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENTS
INSTRUMENTATION & PROCESS CONTROL EQUIPMENTS
LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS

APPENDIX – A:

1. COST OF PLANT ECONOMICS
2. LAND & BUILDING
3. PLANT AND MACHINERY
4. FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT
5. RAW MATERIAL
6. SALARY AND WAGES
7. UTILITIES AND OVERHEADS
8. TOTAL WORKING CAPITAL
9. COST OF PRODUCTION
10. PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
11. BREAK EVEN POINT
12. RESOURCES OF FINANCE
13. INTEREST CHART
14. DEPRECIATION CHART
15. CASH FLOW STATEMENT
16. PROJECTED BALANCE SHEET

The post CRUDE OIL REFINING appeared first on EIRI - eBooks and Project Reports.

Liquid Rosin (Tall Oil) Production, Uses, Extraction, Processing, Compositions and Formulations Hand Book

EIRI Team — Thu, 30 Aug 2018 11:02:04 +0000

Contents

1. Tall Oil (Liquid Rosin) Production and Processing

Introduction
Composition
Fatty acids
Resin acids
Unsaponifiables
Uses of Liquid Rosins
Tall oil
Lignins
Calcium ions
Sulphide ions
Factors affecting quality of CTO
Dehydration
Depitching
Rosin separation
Heads separation
Fatty acid separation

2. Composition of Distilled Tall Oils (DTO)

Experimental Procedures
Results and Discussion

3. Surfactants From Tall Oil Rosin

Cationic Surfactants Experimental
Preparation of maleopimaric acid (MPA)
Preparation of rosin cationic surfactants (QRMAE)
Electrochemical measurement
Surface Activity of the prepared surfactants
Esterification of rosin
Esterification of RMA-MPEG 750
Characterization of the prepared Surfactants
Surface Activity of the prepared surfactants

4. Crude Tall Oil for Wood Protection

Sources, production and utilization of crude tall oil
Tall oil as a wood protection agent
Wood extractives and natural durability
Effect of tall oil on the biological durability of wood
Effect of tall oil on water repellency
Reducing the amount of oil needed
Enhancing the drying properties of crude tall oil
Enhancing the wood protection properties of tall oil
Biodegradability of tall oil-based wood preservatives

5. Synthesis and characterization of tall oil fatty acid

Resin synthesis
Materials
Curing process
Trial experiments for scheme 2 and scheme 3
Characterization of resins
Results and discussion of resins
FTIR analysis of the synthesized thermoset resins
Composite preparation
Hand lay-up impregnation
Characterization of composites
Flexural testing
Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis

6. Tall Oil Fatty Acid (Alkyd-resin, Alkyd Acrylic

Copolymers, Drying Processese
Introduction
Alkyd resin
Alkyd-acrylic copolymers
The drying process
Synthesis of copolymers
Celluloses used as fillers
Films and coatings
Characterization
Surface modification
Degree of substitution
Barrier properties

7. Phytosterols, Phytostanols and Their Esters From Tall Oil (Liquid Rosin)

Manufacturing
Production of sterols from vegetable oil distillates
Production of sterols from wood pulp/tall oil
Production of phytostanols from phytosterols
Production of phytosterol and phytostanol esters
Free fatty acid route
Methylester route
Commercial suppliers
Chemical Characterization
Composition and properties
Quality of phytosterols, phytostanols and their esters
Analytical methods
Regulatory status
Reactions and fate in foods
Stability at high temperatures

8. Distilled Tall Oil (DTO)

The BUS model

9. Antiproliferative evaluation of tall-oil docosanol and tetracosanol

Materials and Methods
Raw materials
Formulation of long-chain alcohols in Pluronic® F-68
Cell culture assays
Statistical analysis

10. Synthesis and Characterization of Novel

Polyurethanes Based on Tall Oil
Synthesis of polyols
Preparation and characterization of polyurethanes
Properties of polyols
Structure of polyols and polyurethanes
Properties of polyurethanes

11. Production of Tall Oil Fatty Acid

12. Tall Oil (Liquid Rosins) Ester-acid Composition For Coating

13. Dicyclopentadiene Alcohol Rosin Derivatives

14. Manufacturing edible oils from tall oil fatty acids

15. Skin care product containing tall oil fatty acids and vegetable oils with manufacturing formula

16. Process For Manufacturing Valuable Products From Tall Oil Pitch

17. Chemically modified, maleated unsaturated fatty acids and the salts

Ricinoleic Acid Modification
Polyamine Modification
Amino Alcohol Modification
Imidazoline Modification
Metal Chelate Modification
Ester Modification
Amino Acid Modification
Polyfunctional Corrosion Inhibitors
Sulfonate & Sulfate Modification
General Considerations
Maleation of Crude Tall Oil

18. Manufacture of A Tall Oil Rosin Ester

Detailed Description
Odor Level Comparison Tests

19. Production of Diesel Fuel From Crude Tall Oil

The Drawings
Description

20. High Temperature Corrosion Inhibition

Performance of Imidazoline and Amide
Experimental
Inhibitor Performance Evaluation
The tests are conducted as follows

21. Hydraulic oil Based on Natural Fatty Acid Esters

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Gross Compositional Characteristics of American Distilled Tall Oilsa
Table 2.2 Composition of Fatty and Resin Acids in American Distilled Tall Oils
Table 2.3 GLC Retention and NMR Characteristics of the Methyl Secodehydroabietatesa
Table 2.4 Composition of Pimaric-and Isopimaric-Type Acids Comprising Resin Acids of American Distilled Tall Oilsa
Table 4. 1. Composition of CTO
Table 4.2. Degree of water repellent efficiency (DEt) of tall oil-treated pine sapwood samples measured after 1 and 96 hours of water immersion
Table 4.3. Properties of the tall oil emulsions
Table 5.1: Different mass ratio of MA to HOTOFA
Table 5.2: DSC analysis table of all uncured resin samples
Table 5.3: TGA analysis for different cured resins
Table 5.4: Summary of the DMTA result
Table 5.5: Summary of charpy properties
Table 6.1. Fatty acid composition of various oils used in coatings
Table 6.2. Alkyd resins studied and used in copolymer synthesis
Table 6.3. Generalized recipe for copolymerizations
Table 6.4. Synthesized and studied copolymers
Table 6.5. Synthesized copolymer dispersions, which
were applied on paperboard
Table 6.6 Relative proportions of each proton and proton group in the polyol region
Table 6.7. Tg values of copolymer films and onset temperatures of the DMA measurements.The results are averages of five measurements
Table 6.8. Comparison of the quantity of fatty acids attached based on the integrated cellulose and acyl peaks in the 13C CPMAS NMR spectra
Table 6.9. Degree of substitution and O/C ratio calculated from XPS measurements
Table 6.10. Mechanical properties of copolymer films studied with DMA, the results are averages from 3 to 8 measurements
Table 7.1. Commercial suppliers of phytosterols, phytostanols and/or their esters; 1) TO: tall oil; VO: vegetable oil
Table 7.2: Physical characteristics and composition of different commercial phytosterols, phytostanols and their esters; 1) from TO sterols; 2) from VO sterols; 3) mainly sitosterol and campesterol
Table 7.3. Phytostanol concentrations in food products on the market, including portion sizes
Table 8.1: Composition of test materials
Table 8.2: Calculation of the MTT, PGE2, and (MTT + PGE2) combined score values
Table 8.3: Results from the MTT assay and the PGE2 determination for tissue treated with a single application of tall oils
Figure 8.1: Determination of the cytotoxicity of single and repeated applications of tall oils
Table 8.4: Results from the MTT assay and the PGE2 determination for tissue treated with repeated applications of tall oils
Table 9.1. Percentage of viability of CHO and melanoma cell cultures in the presence of long-chain aliphatic alcohols
Table 10.1. Specifications of oils
Table 10.2. Characteristics of polyols
Table 10.3. Thermal stability of polyurethanes

List of Figures

Figure 1 .1 The tall oil process
Figure 3.1. FTIR spectra of a) RMAE and b) QRMAE
Figure 3.2. 1HNMR spectra of a) RMAE and b) QRMAE
Figure 3.3 Relation between surface tension of QRMAE and time at different concentrations in a) water and b) 1M aqueous HCl solutions at 25°C.
Figure 3.4. Adsorption isotherms of QRMAE at different concentrations in a) water and b) 1M aqueous HCl solutions at 25°C.
Figure 3.5. FTIR Spectra of a) RMA and b) RMA-(MPEG 750)3
Figure 3.6. Relation between surface tension of R-MPEG 750 and time different concentrations in 1M aqueous HCl solutions.
Fig. 4.1. Simplified diagram of the tall oil distillation pr
Fig. 4.2. Fatty acids.
Fig. 4.3. Resin acids.
Fig. 4.4 Degree of efficiency after the initial wetting and drying cycle, measured after 1 hour of water immersion
Fig. 4.5 Degree of efficiency after the initial wetting and drying cycle, measured after 96 hours of water immersion
Fig. 4.6. Degree of efficiency after six wetting and drying cycles, measured after 1 hour of water immersion
Fig. 4.7. Degree of efficiency after six wetting and drying cycles, measured after 96 hours of water immersion
Fig. 4.8. DSC diagrams (110°C air flow) indicating the oil oxidation rate
Fig. 4.9. Water uptake by tall oil-treated pine sapwood in the seventh wetting and drying cycle
Fig. 4.10. Amounts of oil pressed out of the samples during the compression test
Fig. 4.11. Typical particle size distribution of a tall oil-based emulsion
Figure 5.1: synthesis scheme 1
Figure 5.2: synthesis scheme 2
Figure 5.3: synthesis scheme 3
Figure 5.4: Experimental set-up for synthesis of thermosetting resin
Figure 5.5: the obtained resins with three different mass ratio of MA to HOTOFA
Figure 5.6 : FTIR spectra comparison of TOFA and HOTOFA resins
Figure 5.7: FTIR spectra comparison of HOTOFA, MHOTOFA 1:1, MHOTOFA 1.5: 1 and MHOTOFA 1.76:1resins
Figure 5.8: DSC curve of uncured MHOTOFA 1to1 (no styrene) resin
Figure 5.9: DSC curve for cured MHOTOFA 1to1 resin (no styrene, room T for 1h and post cure in 150°C for another 1h)
Figure 5.10: Comparison of the DSC scan for cured and uncured MHOTOFA 1to1 (no styrene) resin
Figure 5.11: TGA analysis of cured MHOTOFA 1:1 resin (no styrene)
Figure 5.12: Viscose fiber and fiber mats lay-up orientation
Figure 5.13: Six different composites from 3 different resins (with or without styrene) reinforced by viscose fiber
Figure 5.14: Test specimens for flexural, DMTA, charpy, tensile
Figure 5.15: Flexural strength comparison of the composites
Figure 5.16: Flexural modulus comparison of the composites
Figure 5.17: Strain at break% comparison of the composites
Figure 5.18: variation in the storage modulus of the MHOTOFA composites
Figure 5.19: Tan delta curves of the MHOTOFA composites
Figure 5.20: the loss modulus curves of MHOTOFA composites
Figure 5.21: Comparison of the storage modulus between the reinforced resin (composite) and the unreinforced resin, both blended with styrene
Figure 5.22: Impact strength of the composites
Figure 6.1. Structure of typical alkyd resin
Figure 6.2. Miniemulsion and conventional emulsion polymerization
Figure 6.3. Schematic presentation of the oxidative drying of alkyd resin
Figure 6.5. SEC chromatograms of alkyd resins
Figure 6.6. Monomer conversion of copolymers with different wt% of conjugated alkyd resin (BA-MMA ratio is 80:20) (copolymers11-15 in Table 6.4)
Figure 6.7. Monomer conversion of copolymers with different wt% of nonconjugated Alkyd-TMP-3 and BA as monomer (copolymers 1-5 in Table 6.4)
Figure 6.8. Particle-size distribution of emulsion and dispersion with various alkyd contents (copolymers 1, 3, 5 in Table 6.4)
Figure 6.9. Grafting of acrylic macroradical to double bond (a-c) and bis-allylic site (d-f) in the fatty acid chain. a) Macroradical attacks DB in fatty acid chain. b) Grafting occurs and a new radical is formed. c) Polymerization continues at the new radical site. d) Macroradical attacks allylic hydrogen in fatty acid chain. e) Hydrogen is abstracted and a new radical is formed in fatty acid chain, where new radical approaches. f) Macroradical grafts to radical site in fatty acid chain
Figure 6.10. Monomer conversion and acrylic degree of grafting. BA-MMA ratio (wt%) was 80:20 in samples with conjugated alkyd (copolymers 11-15 in Table 6.4) and 100:0 in samples with nonconjugated alkyd (copolymers 1-5 in Table 6.4
Figure 6.11. a) Effect ofBA concentration on grafting site and efficiency. b) Effect of alkyd-acrylate ratio on various grafting sites (copolymers 16-20 in Table 6.4)
Figure 6.12. DSC thermograms of alkyd resin and copolymers (copolymers 16-20 in Table 6.4)
Figure 6.13. a) TG and b) DTG curves showing thermal stability of alkyd resin, alkyd-acrylic copolymers, and acrylic copolymer.
Figure 6.14. Two parts of FTIR spectra of neat whiskers and fatty acid-modified whiskers.The carbonyl peak at app. 1740 cm-1 is marked with dotted line
Figure 6.15. Thermal stability of neat whiskers and fatty acid-modified whiskers presented as TGA curves
Figure 6.16. a) ssNMR spectrum of copolymer film and freeze-dried copolymer. b) FTIR spectra of copolymer film after various drying times showing the decreasing intensity of the cis H-C=CH peak (marked with dotted line)
Figure 6.17. Stress-strain curves of copolymer films with various alkyd contents. One measurement of each film sample set is presented
Figure 6.18. Storage modulus of copolymer films with various alkyd contents. One measurement of each film sample set is presented
Figure 6.19. Figure 1 Water and oil absorbance of copolymer-coated cupboards (copolymers 30-37). Samples 34-37 were crosslinked with GMA
Figure 6.20. Effect of TOFA-modified whiskers on mechanical properties of films
Figure 6.21. Effect of various cellulose types on mechanical properties of the films
Figure 6.22. Effect of TOFA-modified cellulose on a) oxygen barrier properties (copolymers 32 and 33) and b) water and oil absorbance (copolymer 32) of copolymer-coated paperboards.
Figure 7.1. Steroid skeleton
Figure 7.2. Molecular structure of some phytosterols, phytostanols and a fatty acid ester
Figure 8.2: Determination of the irritancy potential of single and repeated applications of tall oils
Figure 8.3: The combined cytotoxicity and irritancy potential of single and repeated applications of tall oils
Fig. 9.1. Structure of long-chain aliphatic alcohol (polycosanols): docosanol and tetracosanol
Fig. 9.2. Effect of long-chain aliphatic alcohol type on CHO-K1 cell growth
Fig. 9.3. Effect of long-chain aliphatic alcohol type on melanoma cell growth
Fig. 10.1. Chemical structure of the synthesized polyols and polyurethanes, where R1 – residue of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (C16-C24) and R2 – residue of aromatic diisocyanate
Fig. 10.2. IR-spectra of polyols (1, 2) and urethanes (3, 4), based on tall oil FOR2 esters (1, 3) and diethanolamides (2, 4)
Fig. 10.3. IR-spectra of tall oil diethanolamides (1, 2) and esters (3, 4), containing 2 % (1, 3) and 20 % (2, 4) of rosin acids
Fig. 10.4. IR-spectra of polyurethanes based on tall oil diethanolamides (1, 2) and esters (3, 4), containing 2 % (1, 3) and 20 % (2, 4) of rosin acids
Fig. 10.5. Density of polyurethanes versus the content of rosin acids
Fig. 10.6. Tg of polyurethanes versus the content of rosin acids
Fig. 10.7. Modulus of elasticity of polyurethanes versus the content of rosin acids
Fig. 10.8. Tensile strength of polyurethanes versus the content of rosin acids
Fig. 10.9. Elongation at break of polyurethanes versus the content of rosin acids
Fig. 10.10. Shear bond strength to wood (W) and aluminium (Al) for polyurethanes versus the content of rosin acids
Fig. 10.11. TGA curves of polyurethanes with the content of rosin acids of 2 %
Fig. 19.1 is a general flow scheme of one embodiment of the invention
Fig. 19.2 is a more detailed flow scheme of one embodiment of the invention

The post Liquid Rosin (Tall Oil) Production, Uses, Extraction, Processing, Compositions and Formulations Hand Book appeared first on EIRI - eBooks and Project Reports.

Technology of Lubrication & Lubricants, Crude Oil Processing, Catalysts in Petroleum Refining and Petrochemical Processes with Mineral Turpentine Oil

EIRI Team — Thu, 30 Aug 2018 10:56:44 +0000

Contents:

Lubrication and Lubricants

Functions of Lubricants
Lubrication Principles
Tests of Lubricants
Lubricants of Mineral Origin
Synthetic Lubricants

Benzene

Manufacturing Process From Petroleum by
Catalytic Reforming

Ethylene

From Refinery Gas by Thermal Cracking

Monoethylene Glycol

Molecular Formula

Diethylene Glycol

Molecular Formula

Triethylene Glycol

Monoethylene Glycol From Ethylene and Oxygen
Uses
Grades
Toxicity

Ethylene Oxide

Molecular Formula
Properties
Manufacturing Process
From Ethylene and Oxygen
Raw material requirement

Toluene

Properties
Manufacturing Process
From Petroleum by Hydroforming
Raw material requirement

Xylene

Properties of Xylene Isomers
Manufacturing Process
Form Petroleum by Catalytic Reforming or
hydroforming

Petroleum jelly

Physical properties
Comparison with glycerol
Uses
Medical treatment
Skin and hair care
Preventing moisture loss
Hair grooming
Skin lubrication
Product care and protection
Coating
Finishing
Lubrication
Production processes
Tattooing
Explosives
Mechanical, barrier functions
Surface cleansing
Pet care
Clean-up
Properties of Petroleum Jelly
Skin Care
Face Care
Hair Care
Nail Care
Household Needs

Bioethanol Production From Sugar Cane Molasses

Ethanol
Feedstock for bioethanol production
Sucrose-containing feedstocks
Starchy materials
Lignocellulosic biomass
Ethanol from cane molasses
Processes of ethanol production

Production of Bio-ethanol from Molasses by Schizosaccharomyces Species

Introduction
Materials And Methods
Collection of Samples
Isolation of Schizosaccharomyces
Production of Ethanol from Molasses
Identification of the Microorganisms
Originally Present in Molasses
Inoculation of Molasses by Isolated Yeast
Distillation and Detection of Ethanol
Results And Discussion
Isolation of Schizosaccharomyces
Species
Physical Characteristics of the
Molasses Sample
Microorganisms Originally Present
in Molasses
Production of Ethanol from Raw
Molasses
Production of Ethanol from Molasses
with Different Concentrations of Sucrose
Detection of Ethanol

Petroleum Crude Oils

Composition of Crude Oils
Hydrocarbon Compounds
Alkanes (Paraffins)
Cycloparaffins (Naphthenes)
Aromatic Compounds
Non-hydrocarbon Compounds
Sulfur Compounds
Acidic Sulfur Compounds
Non-acidic Sulfur Compounds
Nitrogen Compounds
Basic Nitrogen Compounds
Non-Basic Nitrogen Compounds
Oxygen Compounds
Acidic Oxygen Compounds
Non-Acidic Oxygen Compounds
Metallic Compounds
Density, Specific Gravity and API Gravity
Salt Content
Sulfur Content
Pour Point
Ash Content

Crude Oil Processing

Physical Separation Processes
Atmospheric Distillation
Vacuum Distillation
Absorption Process
Adsorption Process
Solvent Extraction
Conversion Processes
Thermal Conversion Processes
Coking Processes
Thermal Cracking Reactions
Delayed Coking
Fluid Coking
Viscosity Breaking (Vis-breaking)
Catalytic Conversion Processes
Catalytic Reforming
Reformer Feeds
Reforming Catalysts
Reforming Reactions
From Acetylene and Acetone
From Isobutylene and Formaldehyde (IFP Process)
From Isobutylene and Methylal (Sun Oil Process)
From Propylene (Goodyear Process)

Chemicals Based on Methane

Chemicals Based On Direct Reactions of Methane
Carbon Disulfide (CS)
Uses Of Carbon Disulfide
Hydrogen Cyanide (Hcn)
Chloromethanes
Production of Chloromethanes
Uses of Chloromethanes
SYNTHESIS GAS
CHEMICALS BASED ON SYNTHESIS GAS
AMMONIA (NH)
Uses of Ammonia
Nitric Acid (HNO)
Hydrazine (HN-NH).
Methylalcohol (CHOH)
Production of Methanol
Uses of Methanol
Methyl Chloride (CHCI)
Acetic Acid (CHCOOH)
Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether ((CH)C-O-CH)
Dimethyl Carbonate (CO(OCH))
Methylamines
Ethylene Glycol

Ethane and Higher Paraffins-Based Chemicals

Ethane Chemicals
Propane Chemicals
Oxidation of Propane
Nitration of Propane (Production of Nitroparaffins)
N-butane Chemicals
Oxidation of N-butane (Acetic Acid and
Acetaldehyde)
Maleic Anhydride:
Aromatics Production
Isobutane Chemicals
Naphtha-based Chemicals
Chemicals From High Molecular Weight
N-paraffins
Oxidation Of Paraffins (Fatty Acids And Fatty
Alcohols)
Chlorination Of N-paraffins (Chloroparaffins)

Chemicals Based On Ethylene

Introduction
Oxidation Of Ethylene
Derivatives of Ethylene Oxide
Ethylene Glycol (CHOHCHOH)
Ethoxylates
Ethanolamines
,-Propanediol
Acetaldehyde (Chcho)
Important Chemicals From Acetaldehyde
Acetic Acid
N-butanol
Oxidative Carbonylation of Ethylene
Chlorination of Ethylene
Vinyl Chloride (Ch=Chcl)
Linear Alcohols

Chemicals Based on Propylene

Oxidation of Propylene
Acrolein (CH=CHCHO)
Uses of Acrolein
Ammoxidation Of Propylene
(Acrylonitrile [CH=CHCN])
Uses of Acrylonitrile
Adiponitrile (NC(CH)CN)
Deriatives and Uses of Propylene Oxide
Propylene Glycol (CHCH(OH)CHOH)
Allyl Alcohol (CH=CHCHOH)
Oxyacylation of Propylene
Chlorination of Propylene
(Allyl Chloride [Ch=Chchcl])
Hydration of Propylene
(Isopropanol [Chchohch])
Properties And Uses of Isopropanol
Acetone Production
Propertles and Uses of Acetone

C4 Oleffins and Diolefins- Based Chemicals

Introduction
Chemicals From N-butenes
Oxidation of Butenes
Acetic Acid CHCOH

Chemicals Based on Benzene, Toluene, and Xylenes

Reactions and Chemicals of Benzene
Reactions and Chemicals of Toluene
Oxidation of Toluene
Caprolactam Production
Phenol from Benzoic Acid
Terephthalic Acid from Benzoic Acid
Chlorination of Toluene
Nitration of Toluene
Carbonylation of Toluene
Chemicals From Xylenes
Terephthalic Acid (Hoocc6h4cooh)

Synthetic Petroleum-Based Polymers

Introduction
Thermoplastics And Engineering Resins
Polyethylene
Low-Density Polyethylene
High-Density Polyethylene
Linear Low-Density Polyethylene
Properties and Uses of Polyethylenes
Polypropylene
Copolymerization
Properties and Uses of Polypropylene
Properties and Uses of Polyvinyl Chloride
Properties and Uses of Styrene Polymers
Nylon Resins
Thermoplastic Polyesters
Polycarbonates
Properties and Uses of Polycarbonates
Polyether Sulfones
Properties and Uses of Aromatic Polyether Sulfones
Poly(phenylene) Oxide
Polyacetals
Thermosetting Plastics
Polyurethanes
Properties and Uses of Polyurethanes
Epoxy Resins
Properties and Uses of Epoxy Resins
Unsaturated Polyesters
Phenol-formaldehyde Resins
Properties and Uses of Phenolic Resins
Amino Resins (Aminoplasts)
Urea-Formaldehyde and Urea-Melamine Resins
Properties and Uses of Aminoplasts
Polycyanurates
Synthetic Rubber
Butadiene Polymers And Copolymers
Properties and Uses of Polybutadiene
Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR)
Nitrile Rubber (Nbr)
Polyisoprene
Properties and Uses of Polyisoprene
Polychloroprene (Neoprene Rubber)
Butyl Rubber
Ethylene-propylene Rubber
Transpolypentamer
Thermoplastic Elastomers
Synthetic Fibers
Polyester Fibers
Polyethylene Terephthalate Production
Properties and Uses of Polyesters
Polyamides (Nylon Fibers)
Nylon (Polyhexamethyleneadipate)
Nylon (Polycaproamide)
Nylon (Polylaurylamide)
Nylon (Polybutyramide)
Nylon (Polyundecanylamide)
Other Nylon Polymers
Properties and Uses of Nylons
Acrylic And Modacrylic Fibers
Properties and Uses of Polyacrylics
Carbon Fibers (Graphite Fibers)
Polypropylene Fibers

Catalysts in Petroleum Refining and Petrochemical Processes

Introduction
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysts
Catalyst Morphology and Activity
Catalysts for Petroleum Refining
Cracking Catalysts
Reforming Catalysts
Hydrotreating Catalysts
Catalysts For Petrochemicals Industry
Catalysts For Synthesis Gas
Hydrogenation Catalysts
Hydrocarbon Oxidation Catalysts
Polymerization Catalysts
Recent Advances in Industrial Catalysis
Dual-Function Catalysts
Super-Active Metal Catalysts
Supported-Ziegler Catalysts
Advances in Homogeneous Catalysis
Role of Polymers in Catalysis

Petrochemicals Future

Integrated Petrochemicals Complex
Natural Gas As Petrochemical Feedstock
Impact Of Heavy Feedstocks
On Petro-chemicals
Ecology And The Energy Crisis
Coal As An Alternative To Oil
Energy Crisis and the Industrial Fuels
Natural Fuels
Synthetic Fuels
Hydrogen: Fuel for tomorrow
Trends in Petrochemical Industry
Development in Cracking Technology
Olefins Vs Paraffins
Prospect for Propylene
Size of Plant
Biomass: Renewable Resource for Petrochemicals
Waste Disposal

Plant Economics of Mineral Turpentine Oil (MTO)

Plant & Machinery
Fixed Capital
Raw Materials
Total Working Capital/Month
Total Capital Investment
Turn Over/Annum

Plant Economics of Lubricating Oil (20w40 Grade Sn-Type)

Plant & Machinery
Fixed Capital
Raw Materials
Total Working Capital/Month
Total Capital Investment
Turn Over/Annum

Plant Economics of Oil Re-refining Unit

Plant & Machinery
Fixed Capital
Raw Materials
Total Working Capital/Month
Total Capital Investment
Turn Over/Annum

Plant Economics of Crude Oil Refining

Plant & Machinery
Fixed Capital
Raw Materials
Total Working Capital/Month
Total Capital Investment
Turn Over/Annum

List of Tables

Table : Properties and uses of various types of greases

Table : Specification for Commercial Grades of Benzene

Table : Typical specification for polymer-grade ethylene

Table : Specifications of Technical Grades of

Ethylene Glycol

Table : Specification for Technical Grade Diethylene

Glycol and Triethylene Glycol

Table : Commercial specifications of Industrial Xylene

Table : Type of feedstock

Table : Physical properties of Ethanol

Table : Different feedstock for bioethanol production and their comparative production potential.

Table : Main components of cane black strap molasses

Table : Microbiological analysis of sugarcane

molasses

Table : Production of ethanol and pH value from raw molasses

Table : Production of ethanol and pH value from molasses with different concentrations of sucrose

Table : Heating values of methane and heavier hydrocarbons present in natural gas

Table : Typical analysis of some crude oils

Table : Approximate ASTM boiling point ranges for

crude oil fractions

Table: Types of petroleum cokes and their end uses

Table : Major thermoplastic polymers

Table : Important properties of polyethylenes

Table : Properties of Polypropylene

Table : Properties of polycarbonates compared with

some thermoplastics

Table : Selected properties of some elastomers

Table : Important properties of polyesters

Table : Melting points of various nylons and the

monomer formula

Table : Physical properties of fiber-grade

polypropylene

Table : Characteristics of Typical Catalysts used in Petroleum Refining.

Table : Important Catalytic Processes of Refining

and Petrochemical Industry

Table : Major Catalysts in use in IPCL Plants

Table : Industrially Important Free-Racial

Polymerization Catalysts

Table : Ziegler-Type Catalysts used in Polymer

Manufacture

Table : HOPE Catalysts.

Table : Miscellaneous Catalysts used In Polymer

Industry.

Table : Relative Cost of Ethylene Production from

Various Feedstocks

Table : Octane Number of Aromatics.

Table : Calorific Value of Fuels.

Table : Comparative Cost of Production of Various

Fuels.

Table : Sources of Hydrogen.

Table : Yield Pattern from a High Severe Cracking

Furnace.

Table : Comparative Study of Propane and

Propylene Routes to Acrylonitriie

List of figures

Fig Fluid film formation in bearing

Fig : Ethanol structure

Fig : Sugar refinery process

Fig.: Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch to glucose.

Fig. : Flow chart of ethanol production from cereal

grains.

Fig. Culture characteristics of Schizosacc-

haromyces species

Fig. Microscopic appearance of Schizosacc-

haromyces species using Gram stain technique

Fig. KMnOH+ before addition of sample (a),

Reduction of KMnOH+ to colourless after

addition of sample (b)

Fig. KCrOH+before addition of

sample (a), KCrOH+after addition change

into colour (b)

Fig. Iodine reagent before addition sample (a),

addition of sample and heating, colour of iodine

change into blue colour (b) and when cooling in water

and added NaOH, the reaction formed yellow colour

precipitate

called iodo-form (c)

Fig Flow diagram of atmospheric and vacuum

distillation units: (,) heat exchangers; () desalter,

(,) heater; () distillation column, () overhead

condenser, (-) pump around streams, () vacuum

distillation heater; () vacuum tower.

Fig Important chemicals based on methane,

synthesis gas, ammonia, and methanol.

Fig A block flow diagram showing the combined

reforming for methanol synthesis.

Fig The Haldor Topsoe and Nippon Kasei

process for producing formaldehyde: () blower,

() heat exchanger, () reactor, () steam boiler,

() absorber, (,) coolers, () incinerator, () heat

recovery, () methanol evaporator, () boiler

feed water.

Fig Major chemicals based on ethylene.

Fig Important chemicals based on propylene.

Fig . Important chemicals based on benzene.

Fig . The reaction scheme for o-xylene to phthalonitrile

Fig The Union Carbide Unipol process for producing

Fig The Union Carbide gas-phase process for gh

producing polypropylene: () reactor, () centri-

fugal compressor, () heat exchanger, () product

discharge tank (unreacted gas separated from product),

() impact reactor, () compressor, () heat exchanger,

() discharge tank (copolymer separated from reacted

gas).

Fig Polyvinyl chloride

Fig The European Vinyls Corp. process for

producing polyvinyl chloride using suspension polymeri-

zation : () reactor, () blow-down vessels (to

separate unreacted monomer), () stripping column,

() reacted monomer recovery, () slurry centrifuge,

() slurry drier.

Figure The Lummus Crest Inc. process for

producing polystyrene: () reactor, () holding

tank (Polystyrene beads and water), () centrifuge,

() pneumatic drier, () conditioning tank, () screening of

beads, (,) lubrication and blending, () shipping product.

Figure The comparative thickness for the same

degree of insulation (dry conditions).

Figure A process for producing ,-polyisoprene

(>%) by a continuous solution polymerization.

Figure The Inventa AG Process for

producing polyethylene-terephthala

Figure The Inventa-Fisher process for producing

nylon from caprolactam: () Melting station, (, )

polymerization reactors, () extruder, () intermediate

vessel, () extraction column, (,) extraction

columns, () cooling silo.

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