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EPOXIDIZED SOYABEAN OIL (SECONDARY PLASTICIZER) USED IN PVC COMPOUND

EIRI Team — Tue, 09 Nov 2021 04:44:56 +0000

Epoxidized soybean Oil (ESO) is an additive to flexible Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) that gains its name from the reaction that occurs with the unsaturated soybean oil. The epoxidation reaction takes place at a carbon to carbon double bond site. The oxygen atom (usually in the form of a peroxide or a peracid) comes in and attaches itself between the two carbons to create a single bonded triangular ring between the three molecules called an oxirane. This oxirane can be used as a way of separate well formed ESO molecules from those that will be less effective. Those ESO molecules with higher oxirane percentages will product better results than those with low oxirane percentages.

Because epoxidized soybean oil is synthesized from the bio-based, renewable resource of soybean crops, the level of saturation of the soybean oil and ultimately the oxirane value of the ESO created from it, is dependent on the growing conditions of the soybeans. Very hot, dry weather is known to inhibit the formation of the unsaturated C18-3 and C18-2 double bonds in the soybean oil and will therefore lead to lower oxirane values in the ESO produced from it.

The climate of American Midwest is very well suited to producing high oxirane value ESO. The United States is responsible for about 32% of the total soybeans grown worldwide, with Brazil and Argentina also significant producers of the oilseed.

Although ESO was first introduced into the plastics market over thirty years ago as a bio based plasticizer that could be a drop-in replacement to Dioctyl phthalate (DOP), it has found a strong niche as a secondary plasticizer due to its heat and light stabilization effects in PVC compounds. The epoxide group is more reactive than a double bond, thus providing a more energetically favorable site for reaction and making it a good hydrochloric acid scavenger and plasticizer.

Epoxidized soybean oil, better known by its acronym, ESBO, is a plasticizer used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics. It serves as a plasticizer and as a scavenger for hydrochloric acid liberated from PVC when the PVC undergoes heat treatment.

A few EU surveys have shown fairly high levels of ESBO in foods, in which about 4% were above the current specific migration limit (SML) for ESBO of 60 mg/kg and about 15% of the samples were above 30 mg ESBO/kg food. High migration levels might lead to an intake that exceeds the existing Tolerable Daily Intake of 1 mg/kg body weight/day.

Epoxidized linolein a major component of ESBO

ESBO is manufactured from soybean oil through the process of epoxidation. The reason why vegetable oils are widely used as plasticizers is because the high numbers of carbon-carbon double bonds present in vegetable oils make them a good target for manipulation into some other useful products like in this case - from soybean oil into epoxidized soybean oil. The epoxide group is more reactive than double bond, thus providing a more energetically favorable site for reaction and making the oil a good hydrochloric acid scavenger and plasticizer. Usually a peroxide or a peracid is used to add an atom of oxygen and convert the -C=C- bond to an epoxide group.

Metal closures incorporate a ring-shaped gasket formed from a bead of liquid plastisol containing up to 40% ESBO which is moulded into the correct profile in the closure shell using a hot punch, then fused by passing through an oven at 200°C for 90 seconds. PVC starts to break down at this high temperature and releases hydrogen chloride. ESBO functions as a stabilizer to scavenge this hydrogen chloride to prevent the autocatalytic breakdown of the polymer. It also functions as a plasticizer.
Vegetable oil finds sustainable and renewable source of raw material. The unsaturation present in vegetable oils can be chemically modified to a value added product by a complicated reaction called ‘epoxidation’. Due to the high reactivity of the oxirane ring epoxides can also act as a raw material for synthesis of variety of chemicals such as alcohols (polyols), glycols, olefinic compounds, lubricants, plasticizer and stabilizer for polymers and their demand is increasing day by day. Vegetable oil represents one of the cheapest and most abundant biological feedstock available in large quantities and its use as starting material offers numerous advantages such as low toxicity and inherent biodegradability. Thus the economic value of the vegetable oil could be increased by converting the vegetable oil into epoxidized vegetable oil. The double bonds in the vegetable oil are used as reactive sites in the coatings and they can also be functionalized by epoxidation. Thus the high molecular weight products can be obtained by increasing the cross linking. Now due to the increasing levels of awareness regarding environment is driving the development of sustainable green materials.

Petrochemical based resin such as epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester find more engineering application because of their advantageous material properties such as high stiffness and strength. However these resins have serious drawbacks in terms of biodegradability, initial processing cost, energy consumption and health hazards. Consequently there is a requirement to develop novel biobased product from renewable feedstock. Therefore a number of researchers have been studied vegetable oils as alternative feedstock to substitute for petroleum. Hence it needs to be explored for the various applications in chemical industry.

The double bonds in the vegetable oils are used as reactive sites in coatings and they can also be functionalized by epoxidation. The utilization of epoxidized vegetable oil has become more common in the past few years. Moreover, plasticizers and additives for polymer PVC derived from vegetable oil based have been shown to have improved performance in terms of high resistance to heat and light.
As energy demands increase and fossil fuel reserves are limited, there has been a growing interest in the utilization of renewable resources as an alternative to petroleum-based polymers. Consequently, much attention has been focused on the development of polymeric materials from vegetable oils, a ustainable resource. Vegetable oil, which is readily available and is a comparatively inexpensive material, can be used to synthesize various types of polymers. Today, one of the most important epoxidized vegetable oils is epoxidized soybean oil (ESO), and its worldwide production is about 200,000 t/year. Several derivatives of vegetable oils are used as polymerizable monomers in a radiation curable system due to their environmentally friendly character and low cost when compared to products from petroleum. Moreover, the long fatty acid chains of vegetable oils impart desirable flexibility and toughness to some brittle resin systems such as epoxy, urethane and polyester resins. Triglyceride oils are one of the most important sources for biopolymers. Triglycerides from plants, such as soy bean, palm, rapeseed or sun flower, can be utilized. Triglycerides are composed of three fatty acid chains joined by a glycerol center, with a typical structure.

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SOLVENT EXTRACTION PLANT OF COTTON SEED, SOYABEAN & PALM OIL

EIRI Team — Fri, 15 May 2015 09:12:01 +0000

Nigeria with a population of over 116 million is one of the most populous country in Africa.

Nigeria is located in West Africa with total land area of 923,768 sq km. The agriculture sector employs 70% of its labor force and contributes more than 33% to the GDP. The main crops grown are cotton, cocoa, rubber, peanuts, oil palm, maize, rice, sorghum, millet, cassava, yams, timber and livestock. The agricultural sector in Nigeria, since 1970’s has been characterized by declining productivity and increased dependence on import of food and raw materials.

For decades cotton production (lint and cotton seed) has been a driving force for economic development in Nigeria. The neglect of the agricultural sector during the oil boom years (1970-80’s) had a direct impact on the cotton sector. In the recent years due to poor management and reduced production of both lint and seed, the cotton sector has slackened.

••   INTRODUCTION
•   PRESENT MANUFACTURERS/SUPPLIERS OF
•   USES AND APPLICATIONS
•   PROPERTIES
•   STORAGE OF COTTON SEEDS, OIL AND CAKE
•   USES AND APPLICATIONS
•   MARKET POSITION
•   EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM COTTONSEED
•   PROPERTIES
•   RAW MATERIALS
•   ADVANTAGES OF EXPANDER -EXTRUDER - COOKER
•   PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE
•   PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF SEED UNLOADING & CLEANING SECTION
•   PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION SECTION
•   PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF OIL REFINING SECTION
•   PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF OIL REFINING SECTION-CONTINUES
•   PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF OIL PACKING SECTION
•   MATERIAL BALANCE FOR PREPARATORY SECTION
•   MATERIAL BALANCE FOR SOLVENT EXTRACTION
•   MATERIAL BALANCE FOR OIL REFINERY
•   MANUFACTURING PROCESS DESCRIPTION
•   VEGETABLE OIL REFINERIES
•   GMP/GHP CRITERIA FOR FOOD
•   UTILITIES
•   WASTE TREATMENT
•   EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
•   QUALITY CONTROL
•   MANPOWER
•   PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION PLANT
•   PLANT LOCATION FACTORS
•   EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED IN THE PROJECT REPORT
•   PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULES
•   IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE
•   COMPLETE PLANT AND MACHINERY SUPPLIERS
FOR SOLVENT EXTRACTION PLANT
•   LIST OF PLANT AND MACHINERY SUPPLIER
•   LIST OF FOOD AND AGRO PROCESSING CONSULTANTS
•   COTTON SEED OIL MANUFACTURER
•   LIST AND COST OF PLANT & MACHINERY

APPENDIX – A :

.     COST OF PLANT ECONOMICS
2.     LAND & BUILDING
3.     PLANT AND MACHINERY
4.     FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT
5.     RAW MATERIAL
6.     SALARY AND WAGES
7.     UTILITIES AND OVERHEADS
8.     TOTAL WORKING CAPITAL
9.     COST OF PRODUCTION
10.     PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
11.     BREAK EVEN POINT
12.     RESOURCES OF FINANCE
13.     INTEREST CHART
14.     DEPRECIATION CHART
15.     CASH FLOW STATEMENT

The post SOLVENT EXTRACTION PLANT OF COTTON SEED, SOYABEAN & PALM OIL appeared first on EIRI - eBooks and Project Reports.

Technology Book of Oilseeds Processing, Oils & Fats and Refining

EIRI Team — Wed, 19 Feb 2014 09:49:22 +0000

The role of dietary fats and oils in human nutrition is one of the most important areas of concern and investigation in the field of nutritional science. The findings of investigations on this subject have wide-ranging implications for consumers, healthcare providers and nutrition educators as well as food producers, processors and distributors. New evidence concerning the benefits and risks associated with particular aspects of dietary fat is constantly emerging in both the scientific literature and the popular media. At times, controversies about these findings emerge. Sifting through all the claims and counterclaims, incomplete and incompatible studies, and biases and competing interests for the elements of truth and a prudent course of action is a challenge. However, such discrimination in essential because changing views about the effects of dietary fats and oils can profoundly influence the consumption of various foods and, ultimately, health and nutritional status, agricultural production, food processing technologies, food marketing practices and nutrition education. Fats are the main source of energy for satisfactory growth and physical activity during early infancy. This energy requirement is not easily met where diets are low in fat (less than 15 per cent of total calories), which partly explains the high prevalence of malnutrition in such areas. Fats should also be considered in terms of their structural function during the first two years of life. They provide the fatty acids and cholesterol needed to form cell membranes in all the organs.

Moreover, important organs such as the retina and the central nervous system are mainly composed of fats. Most of the fats needed to form these tissues are essential fatty acids (EFAs) which cannot be synthesized by the organism and have to be acquired through nutrition. Mother’s milk has a special fat composition that makes it unique for goodchild nutrition. It contains factors that facilitate the digestion of fats, while its chemical composition makes it more digestible and includes a balanced supply of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids. Oilseed processing equipment with a daily capacity of less than 50 tons per day typically employs a mechanical extraction process to separate the oil from an oilseed. Mechanical extraction processes apply pressure to separate oil from the meal in an oilseed. A common method for applying mechanical pressure is through a screw press.

Within India there are regional variations in ghani design, which probably arose form the nature of the oilseeds that were regionally available for crushing. The large granite ghanis of southern India have a capacity of 35 to 40 kg, requiring two animals yoked side by side and two operators, one for the animals and the other near the mortar. The load-beam is very long and curved and rides on a strong outer groove on the mortar. These ghanis have a life of four to five years, after which the pit is too worn to be useful. The wooden ghani of western India has a capacity of 8 to 15 kg, has an oil outlet at the base of the pit (which is kept plugged during crushing) and frequently has the operator seated on the load-beam. Margarine is an emulsion of water in oil type (W/O) which include two essential phases: continuous phase: FATTY PHASE dispersed phase: AQUEOUS PHASE It contains also some additives (lecithin, monoglycerides, salt, colouring agent, antioxidant, preservatives, vitamins) distributed partly in the fatty phase (soluble or dispersible in fats) and partly in the aqueous phase (soluble or dispersible in water and/or milk). Emulsion is a liquid system including two immiscible phases, one being finely dispersed in the other. But because of its thermodynamic instability, the emulsion tends to separate for restructuring the two original phases. In the case of margarine, it is therefore necessary to facilitate emulsion and to stabilize that condition. This is the role of emulsifying agents which reduce the quantum of labour for formation of a homogeneous mixture of these two immiscible phases, final stability of the product is obtained by crystallization of the fatty phase in the emulsion.

The complete definition of margarine is thus one of a polydispersed system of fats to solid and liquid states, in water and/ or milk, of ingredients and sometimes of gas bubbles. Mechanical extraction processes have two main elements. The first is seed preparation. Seed preparation methods vary depending on seed characteristics. For example, seed preparation for canola often is limited to seed cleaning while other oilseeds may need to be cleaned, de-hulled, cracked, rolled, and/or flaked. Additional equipment may be required to complete seed preparation. A producer should identify the oilseeds that they are likely to process in order to determine exactly what equipment will be needed.The second element is the removal of oil from the oilseed. In a screw press operation, seed is fed from a hopper into the screw press, which uses pressure to force oil contained in an oilseed through small openings in the side of the press. Meal, that is too large to exit through the small openings is extruded through larger openings at the end of the press. Screw presses are capable of removing approximately 65 percent to 75 percent of the oil contained in an oilseed. Some mechanical presses preheat seed as it enters the press. Preheating increases oil recovery rates to 65 percent to 80 percent. Alternatively, if seed is processed at low temperatures (for example, below freezing) oil recovery rates may be less than 60 percent. Actual recovery rates will depend on press quality, press operation, seed quality, seed type and seed temperature.

The present volume Technology of Oilseeds Processing, Oils & Fats and Refining contains 11 chapters on various aspects of oilseed processing refining, i.e. Chemical Constituents of Fats, Oleaginous Seeds and their Oils, Olive and Olive Oil, Palm Oil and its Fractions, Animal Fat, Technology of Refining of Fats, Hydrogenation Technology, Fractionation Technology, Margarine Technology, Production of Neat Soap with 63% Fatty Acids, Oilseed Processing Technology

TECHNOLOGY OF OILSEEDS PROCESSING, OILS & FATS AND REFINING contains:

Chemical Constituents
of Fats

Fatty acids
Rules of Nomenclature
Numbering
Nomenclature
Symbols
Saturated Acids
Acids with an even number of carbon atoms
Acids with an odd number of carbon atoms
Branched chain acids
Monoenic acids
Monoenic acids: ethylene bond at 9
Monoenic acids: ethylene
bond at n – 9
Position isomers of oleic acid
Monoenic acids: trans ethylene bond
Monoenic acids: terminal ethylene bond
Polyenic Acids
Other Polyunsaturated Acids
Acids with conjugated
ethylene bonds
Cyclic Acids
Cyclopropenic Acids
Cyclopentenic Acids
Semisynthesized Cyclic
Acids
Acids with Secondary Groups
Hydroxy Acids
Epoxy Acids and Ketoacids
Fatty Acid Distribution
Glycerides
Overview
Stereospecific numbering
and nomenclature
Partial Glycerides
Single-acid diglycerides
Diglycerides with two fatty acids
Triglycerides
Glyceride Structure
Glyceride Composition
Glyceride Distribution
Hypothesis and Distribution Laws
Minor Constituents
Phosphatides
Phosphatidic Acids
Phosphatidyl Amino Alcohols
Phosphatidyl Polyols
Phosphoglyceride Fatty Acids
Sphingolipids
Glucolipids
Monogalactosyl diglyceride Cerides
Unsaponifiable Matter
Triterpenes and their Derivatives
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin E, Tocopherols and Tocotrienols
Forms of Vitamin A
Forms of Vitamin D
Fatty Alcohols
Hydrocarbons
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
Terpenic Hydrocarbons
Carotenes and Carotenoids
Other Constituents
Chlorophylls and their Derivatives

Oleaginous Seeds
and their Oils

Oil Composition
Oleic Sunflower
Rapeseed and mustard
Rapeseed and Mustard Species
Rapeseed or Mustard Plant
Agronomy of Rapeseed and Mustard
Genetic Improvements
Rapeseed and Mustard Seed
Fatty Acids of Rapeseed and Mustard Oils
Unsaponifiable Fraction of Rapeseed Oil
SOYBEAN
Plant
Seed
Composition of Soybean Oil
Corn and Grapeseeds
Corn
Botany, Crop Growing, Production
Technology
Oil
Physicochemical Characteristics
Triglyceride Composition
Fatty Acid Composition
Composition of Unsaponifiable Fraction
Grapeseeds
Botany, Growing, Production
Technology
Grapeseed Oil
Physicochemical Characteristics
Triglyceride Composition
Fatty Acid Composition
Composition of Unsaponifiable Fraction
Safflower, sesame, Camelina, poppy seed oil
Safflower
Botany, Growing, Production Technology
Safflower Oil
Physicochemical Characteristics
Fatty Acid Composition
Composition of Unsaponifiable Fraction
Sesame
Botany, Growing, Production
Technology
Sesame Oil
Physicochemical Characteristics
Fatty Acid Composition
Composition of Unsaponifiable Fraction
Camelina
Botany, Growing, Production
Camelina Oil
Physicochemical Characteristics
Fatty Acid Composition
Unsaponifiable Fraction
Poppy Seed Oil
Botany, Growing, Production
Poppy Seed Oil
Physicochemical Characteristics
Triglyceride Composition
Fatty Acid Composition
Unsaponifiable Fraction
Oleaginous Flax
Seed
Oil Composition
Almond, Hazelnut, Walnut
Almond
Botany, Growing, Production
Almond Oil
Physicochemical Characteristics
Composition of Triglycerides
Fatty Acid Composition
Composition of Unsaponifiable Fraction
Hazelnut
Botany, Growing, Production
Technology
Hazelnut Oil
Physicochemical Characteristics
Triglyceride Composition
Fatty Acid Composition
Composition of Unsaponifiable Fraction
Walnut
Botany, Growing, Production
Technology
Walnut Oil
Physicochemical Characteristics
Fatty Acid Composition
Composition of Unsaponifiable Fraction
Evening Primrose, Borage, And Blackcurrant Seeds
Overview
Evening Primrose
Botany and Genetics of Primrose
The Œnothera genus
Evening Primrose Seed
Upgrading of the Evening Primrose for Production
of g-Ln
Evening Primrose Oil
Borage
Seed
Some Agronomical Data
Borage Oil
“Virgin” Oil or “Refined” Oil ?
Main Uses of Borage Oil
Blackcurrant Seeds
Botany
Blackcurrant Seed Oil
Main Uses of Blackcurrant Seed Oil
Competing
Biotechnologies

Olive and Olive Oil

The Olive and its tree
Composition and characteristics of olive oil
Triglyceride composition
Fatty Acid Distribution in Internal and External Positions
Fatty Acid Composition
Unsaponifiable Matters
Contaminants
Quality and specifications:
The International COI Standard

Palm Oil and its Fractions

The plant
Botany
Crop growing techniques
Ecology & Growing Area
Yields and Production
Palm oil
Characteristics and Chemical Composition
Utilization

Animal Fat

Fat rendering industry land animal
Raw Material
Source
Characteristics
Collecting Fat
Rendering Process Principle
Batch dry Rendering System
Continuous Wet Rendering System
Continuous Dry Rendering System
Materials
Metal Elimination
Cookers
Pre-heaters
Dryers
Separators
Bone fat extraction
Choice of a rendering process

Technology of Refining of Fats

Minor Components and Contaminants to be Eliminated
Free Fatty Acids
Partial Glycerides
Phospholipids
Colouring Agents
Free Sugars, Glycolipids
Hydrocarbons, Resins
Sterols
Tocopherols
Waxes
Metal Compounds
Flavours
Naturally Food-Borne Toxic Substances
Substances of External Origin
Receiving and Storing Crude Oils
Quality Control before Unloading
Crude Oil Warehousing
Determining Quantities, Gaugings
Classical Chemical Refining
Eliminating Phospholipids
Caustic Soda Neutralization
Waterwashing
Drying
Quality Control of Neutral Oil
Acidity
Moisture Content
Phosphorous
Soap
Neutralization Equipment Technology: Pumps, Exchangers, Mixers, Contactors
Feed Pumps
Dosing Pumps
Flow-Meters
Disc Heat-Exchangers
Spiral Exchangers
Welded Plate Heat-Exchangers
“Compablock” Exchangers
Scraped Surface Heat Exchangers
Mixers and Contactors
Neutralization Equipment Technology: Centrifugal Separators
Different Types of Continuous Centrifugal Separators
Peripherals of the Centrifugal Separators
Programming System of the Self-Cleaning Separators
Theoretical Data Determining the Bowls Characteristics
Study of Some Equipments
Cylindrical Bowls Separators
Westfalia’s Separators, Type RTA or OSM with Double Turbine
Alfa-Laval type SRG separator
Separators with Self-Cleaning Bowls
Westfalia’s Type RSA Self-Cleaning
Separators
Alfa-Laval Type SRPX
Self-cleaning Separators
Bowls Cleaning,
Starting up and Ending Procedures
Self-cleaning Bowls
Dismantling the Bowls
Reassembling the Bowls
Starting and Stopping a Centrifuge
Neutralization Loss
Determining Neutralization
Loss Using an Inventory Balance
Determination Using Loss Control
Determining Neutralization Loss with Chemical Methods
Bleaching
The Absoption Phenomenon
Bleaching Agents
Bleaching Clays
Activated Carbon
Side Effects of Bleaching Agents
“Trisyl” and other Similar Products
Bleaching Monitoring
Filtration and filters
Porous Walls
Filters: Process and Technology
Example of a Metallic Cloth Filter: Niagara Filter
Example of a Metal Mesh Filter:
Funda Filter
Example of a Metal Mesh Filter: Bernardini Filter
Plugging of Metal Filters
Safety Filters
Filters Using Paper Filtering Discs: Filter Presses
Filters Using Filtration Discs: Bubble Cap Filters
Filtration Quality Control – Computerizing the Process
Control with a Filtration Test
Control with a Turbidity Measure
Monitek Turbidity Instrument
APV-Bowser Turbidity Instrument
De-Oiling Spent Earth
Analyses to be Carried Out on Bleached Oil
Dewaxing Vegetable Oils
Waxes & their Measuring
Dewaxing by Filtration
Dewaxing by Centrifugation, Double Purification
Pre-Dewaxing by Chilling and Centrifugating after Neutralization
Pre-Dewaxing by Chilling and Centrifugating after Partial Neutralization
Pre-Dewaxing by Cold Degumming
Eliminating Spent Earths
“Demargarination” of Selectively Hydrogenized Oils
Prechilling Peanut Oils
Deodorization
Flavour and Odour Releasing Substances
Substances Characterizing Non-Alterated Oil
Substances Produced by Oil Degradation
Basic Principles of Deodorization
Influence of Various Parameters
Amount of Steam Injected
Influence of Temperature
Influence of the Duration of the Operation
Influence of Pressure
Influence of the Way Cooling is Conducted
Loss During Deodorization
Inevitable Loss
Other Loss
Product Quality
Deodorization Equipment
Example of a Semicontinuous Deodorizer
Example of a Continuous Deodorizer
Semicontinuous Deodorizer with Continuous Inlet and Outlet
Thin Film Deodorization
Saturation with Nitrogen
Pollution and Nuisance Due to Deodorization
Physical Refining
Basic Principles
Superdegumming
treating the by-products
Soapstocks
Earths From Bleaching
Earths from Dewaxing
Deodorization By-products
Waste Water Treatment

Hydrogenation Technology

Diagrammatic Principle of Hydrogenation
Hydrogen
Catalysts
Different Types of Catalysts
Catalyst Poisons
Fats and Oils to be Hydrogenated
Hydrogenation Equipment
Discontinuous or Vat Process
DEAD-END System
Continuous Hydrogenation
Comparison with Discontinuous Processes
Principle of Continuous Process
Equipment Models
Separation of Catalyst & Operations
Filtration Conditions
Filtration Apparatus
Handling of Catalyst
General Layout of an Installation
Improvement in Hydrogenation Techniques
New Stirring Techniques
BUSS Loop Reactor
Helicoidal L.M. LITZ
Mechanism
Other Hydrogenation Techniques
Improvement in Energy Yield
Control of Reaction
Process Control
Controlling the End of
Reaction (End Point)
Control of Finished Product
Characteristics of Some Hydrogenated Oils
Safety Problems
Hydrogen-Related Problems
Problems in Handling of Catalyst
Problems of Installation Safety

Fractionation Technology

Fractionation of palm oil
Fractionation of lightly hydrogenated lard or tallow
Fractionation of Hydrogenated Oils
Dewaxing of Sunflower Oil
Different Methods of Fractionation
Chromatography
Fractionated Crystallization
Liquid/liquid Extraction
Fractionated Crystallization
Principle and Method
Some Theoretical Considerations on Crystallization Technology
Heat transfer between
Rate of nuclei diffusion
Effect of Temperature Gradient (At)
Effect of the Surface (S) of Transfer
Effect of Viscosity
Dry Fractionation
Principle
The TIRTIAUX Process
Fractionation in Solvent
Phase
Principle
Operating Conditions
Installation of Fractionation by Solvent
Fractionation in Presence of Detergent (Lanza process)
Principle
Operating Conditions
Installation Using LANZA Process
Brief Comparison of the Three Processes
Liquid/Liquid Fractionation
Freeman Rule

Margarine Technology

General Production
Principles
Importance of Crystallization
Polymorphism
Mixed Crystals
Dimension and Form of Crystals
Importance of Rate of Solid
Does the Aqueous Phase and Ingredients Have a Role to Play?
General Production Pattern
Vegetable Oils and Fats
Animal Oils
Formulation of Fatty Phases
Equivalent of Rates of Solids
Introduction of Data of Crystallization
Problems Linked to Hardness
Evaluation of Margarine for Pastry
Elasticity and Spread
Taste of Margarines
Melting Speed
Sensation of “freshness “
Sensation of “thickness”
Oil Exudation
Characteristics of the Fatty Phase
Production Additives and Auxiliaries
Ingredients Soluble in the Fatty Phase
Emulsifying Agent
Monoglycerides of Fatty Acids
Colouring agents
Aromas Soluble in Fatty Phase
Liposoluble Vitamins
Ingredients Soluble in Aqueous Phase
Water
Milk
Salt
Preservatives
pH Regulators
Antioxidants
Emulsion Preparation
Preparation of the Fatty
Phase
Preparation of Aqueous
Phase
Water and Brine
Sugar
Matured Milk
Acidity Regulator
Final Emulsion
Diverse Processes of Manufacture
Semi-Continuous
Processes or Proces-
ses on Drum
The Traditional Processes Represented by the
System of Tubular
Cooling and Scraped Surface
VOTATOR Process
The Perfector System
Conditioning
Quality Control
Control During Manufacture
Control of the Fat Phase
Salt and Sugar
Testing the Finished
Product
Testing the Water Content
Testing Weight of Bricks
Salt Content
Content of Air and Occluded Gases
pH Measurement
Measurement of Hardness
Other Tests
Organoleptic Quality
Bacteriological Control
Packaging Checks
Oil Emulsions in Water
Emulsions
Physical Stability
Sedimentation or Creaming
Floculation or Coagulation
Coalescence or Rupture of Emulsion
Bacteriological Stability
Organoleptic Stability
Mayonnaise
Definition
Raw Materials Used
Oil
Egg yolk
Mustard
Vinegar
Other Ingredients
Additives and Aromas
Formulation
Production
Discontinuous Production
Quality Control
Mayonnaise
Raw Materials
Packaging
Sauces
Variety Sauces
Bearnaise Sauce
Tartar Sauce
Burgundy Sauce
Ailloli Sauce
Salad Sauces
Vinegar

Production of Neat Soap with 63% Fatty Acids

Saponification Reaction
Batch Process
Equipment
Saponification
Washing
Fitting
Continuous Processes
Sharples Process
Monsavon Process
Alfa-Laval Process
Saponification
Mazzoni Process
Washing cycles
Latest Developments in Processes
Other Processes
Soap from Fatty Acids
Methyl Ester Soap
Miscellaneous Processes
Drying and Finishing of Soap
Drying of Household Soaps
Drying of Toilet Soap
Finishing of Toilet Soap
Wrapping and Packaging
Glycerine Recovery
Lye Processing
Concentration
Distillation
Bleaching

Oilseed Processing Technology

Importance of fats and oils
Availability of edible oils
Traditional oil processing
Ghani technology
Crushing oilseeds
Oil yield
Evolution of oil
processing
Advantages and disadvantages of ghani crushing
Authenticity of edible oils
Olive oil
Purity criteria
Free Fatty Acid
Content (FFA)
Peroxide Value (PV)
Specific Extinction (SE)
Fatty Acid Composition
Sterol Composition
Codex standards to combat fraud
Future developments
Recommendations on
Fats and Oils in Human Nutrition
Minimum Desirable
Intakes for Adults
Recommendations
Minimum desirable intakes for infants and young children
Recommendations
Upper limits of dietary fat and oil intakes
Recommendations
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol
Recommendations
Isomeric fatty acids
Recommendations
Substances associated with fats and oils
Recommendations
Essential fatty acids
Recommendations
Dietary information and programme needs
Recommendations

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agro food processing and packaging technology book

EIRI Team — Sat, 15 Feb 2014 11:01:57 +0000

AGRO FOOD PROCESSING AND PACKAGING TECHNOLOGY

FOOD LAWS

Introduction
Food safety and standard act
The ABCD of FSSA
Salient features of FSSA
Responsibilities of the food business operator
Improvement notices
Offences and penalties
Licensing and registration
Nutrition labelling
Requirements
Content on label
Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) IS 15000)
Principles of HACCP
Features
Some salient points are
Benefits of HACCP
License process
Food safety management systems certification scheme (IS/ISO 22000)
Features
Benefits
Licence procedure
ISI Mark: Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS, 1986)
Features
License procedure
Weight and Measure Act
Regulations
Package Commodity Act
Regulations

READY-TO-EAT SNACKS EXTRUSION TECHNOLOGY

Introduction
Materials and methods
Raw materials
Dehulling and milling
Formulations used
Extrusion conditions for lab scale extruder
Spicing of samples
Sensory evaluation
Physical characteristics
Proximate composition
Consumer acceptability of extruded snacks
Results
Sensory evaluation
Physical parameters of the extrudates
Proximate composition of the extrudates
Consumer evaluation of products

POTATO CHIPS

Introduction
Materials and methods
Procurement of raw material
Preparation of potato chips
Fat analysis
Sensory Evaluation
Statistical analysis
Results and discussion

READY TO EAT PROTEIN RICH FOOD BARS

Introduction
Formulation and preparation of protein rich food bars
Results
Organoleptic evaluation of protein rich rood bars
Proximate chemical composition, mineral content and IVPD of most acceptable protein in rich food bars

GRADING AND SORTING FOOD PRODUCTS USING COMPUTER

Introduction
Digital image processing
Fundamental steps in image processing
Image acquisition
Image preprocessing
Image segmentation
Image representation and descriptioner
Image recognition and interpretation
Elements of digital image processing system
Automatic grading and sorting of food products using computer vision systems
Bakery products
Fruits
Vegetables
Grains
Limitations of the system

IQF FREEZING AND APPLICATION

IQF Spiral Freezers
Applications
Benefits
Low operation cost
Impingement Polybelt Tunnel Freezer
Applications
Modular IQF fluidized tunnelfreezer
Multipass belt tunnel freezer
Applications
Tray IQF fluidized tunnel freezer
Applications
Drag-thru-dolly tunnel freezer
Application

FOOD CANNING

Plant site
Factory building
Water supply and drainage
Workers
Machinery and equipment
Canning method
Key processes
Sorting and grading
Washing
Peeling, coring and pitting
Hand peeling
Peeling, coring and pitting by machine
Peeling by heat
Lye peeling
Blanchng
Can filling
Syruping or brining
Lidding or clinching
Exhausting
Sealing
Processing/Manufacturing
Heat penetration in cans
Manufacturing processes
Non-acid Vegetables
Effect of altitude on processing time
Effect of altitude on processing pressure and temperature
Effect of acidity on sterilization
Effect of processing on strain in can
Cooling Testing
Labelling, storing and packing

FRUITS CANNING TECHNOLOGY

Canning of fruits
Apples
Storage
Washing
Grading
Peeling and coring
Blanching
Canning
Filling
Exhausting
Sterilizing
Cooling
Mangoes
Oranges
Papaya
Pineapple
Harvesting
The Ginaca machine
Trimming
Slicing
Grading and packing
Prevacuumizing
Syruping
Double seaming
Processing
Cooling
Crushed pineapple
By products
Peaches
Grading
Cutting and pitting
Cutting and pitting by hand
Cutting and pitting by machine
Peeling and washing of clingstone of peaches
Slicing
Cans
Filling
Syruping
Peeling and washing, freestone peaches
Steaming
Scalding in water
Combination of steam and lye
Sorting
Grading
Exhausting
Closing
Processing
Cooling
Storage
Pears
Grading
Peeling and coring
Grading and filling
Syrupping
Exhausting
Closing
Process
Cooling

PREPARATION OF FRUIT JUICES, SQUASHES & CORDIALS

Sherbet
Eqipment for fruit juices
Washing equipment
Sorting equipment
Extraction equipment
Halving and turning machines
Continuous screw expeller press
Plunger type press
Roller type press
Double operation
Basket press
Rack and cloth press
Straining or screening equipment
Setting or sedimentation
Filtration equipment
Deaerator and flash pasteurizer
Fruit beverages
Preparation and preservation
Selection and preparation of fruit
Juice extraction
Deaeration
Straining, filtration and clarification
Use of fining agents
Enzymes
Chemical finings
Clarification by freezing
Clarification by heating
Preservation of fruit juices
Pasteurization
Bottle methd or Holding pasteurization
Pasteurization by over flow method
Preparation of fruit beverages
Fruit beverages
Squashes and cordials
Orange squash
Extraction of Juice
Preparation of squash
Grapefruit squash
Lemon squash
Lime squash
Lime juice cordial
Jaman squash or syrup
Mango squash
Peach squash
Phalsa squash
Pineapple squash
Plum squash
Syrups

TECHNOLOGY OF VEGETABLES CANNING

Comparison offruits and vegetables
Okra
Filling and exhausting
Mushrooms
Sorting of washing
Blanching
Size-grading
Filling
Canning
Peas
Vining
Cleaning
Grading
Blanching
Grading and maturity
Brine
Fill of cans
Exhausting
Cooling
Cabbage
Pumpkin
Washing and preparation for canning
Pulping
Canning
Beans
Vining
Grading
Blanching
Filling
Exhaust
Cooling
Potatoes
Washing
Preheating
Peeling
Inspection and trimming
Size grading
Filling
Sealing and processing
Cooling
Carrots
Washing
Grading
Blanching
Peeling
Slicing of dicing
Canning

POULTRY PROCESSING

Slaughter and bleeding
Scalding
Defeathering
Evisceration
Chilling
Packaging
Nutritive value
Eggs and egg products
Nutritive value
Egg quality
Evaluation of egg quality
Egg grading
Egg processing
Egg freezing
Dried eggs
Egg substitutes
Other products
Leavening power
Binding and thickening
Emulsifying power
Tenderizing
Moisture refention
Flavour
Nutrition
Colour

AQUA FARM

Selection of region
Site selection
Soil
Water
Land
Other factors
Design of aqua farm
Design of earthen ponds
Size and depth
Earthen embankment
Type and shape
Inlet and outlets
Free board
Design of hatchery
Deterination of main parameters
Other facilities
Estimation in fish farm construction

PULSE PRODUCTION

Improved varieties
Ridge/raised bed planting
Bio-fertilizers
Foilar spray of urea
Sulphur application
Weed Management
Seed priming
Remunerative cropping systems
Integrated wilt management
Integrated management of helicoverpa
IIPR Mini Dal Mill

PRODUCTION PROCESS OF LARGE CARDAMOM

Growth requirements
The plant
Wild relatives
Varieties
Propagation
Inflorescence and pollination
Nutrient management
Disease management
Insect pest management
Flowering and harvest
The fruit
Production
Post-harvest processing
Benefit Cost analysis
Trade

RICE-FISH POULTRY FARMING

Field layout
Fish
Poultry
Productivity of the system
Economics
Employment generation
Water requirement
Nutritional status of soil

ORGANIZED DAIRY FARMS

Components of animal shelter
Foundation
Pillars
Walls
Loft
Roof
Feeding manager
Stall
Stanchion
Passages
Water provision
Night lighting
Manure pits
Calf stalls
White washing
Loafing yard
Other facilities
Surroundings
Dairy animal shelter models
Model for specialized large herd of 100 cows and 72 followers in hot and dry or hot and humid climatic zone

POLYHOUSE TECHNOLOGY FOR PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLES

Polyhouse
Polyhouse/greenhouse construction tips
Plastic low tunnels
Sil trench
Site selection
Raising off season nursery
Raising plant propagation material
Production of fresh vegetables
Vegetable seed production in polyhouse
Maintenance of germplasm
Production of breeder seeds
Hybrid (F1) seed production
Benefits of poly/green house in temperate regions

PRODUCTIVITY OF GOATS

Criteria for selection of good goats
Features of unproductive goats
Criteria for checking the general health of goats
Housing of goats
Advantages of artificial insemination in goats
Milk secretion is different in goats
Milking of goats
Machine milking of goats
Criteria for producing betterquality milk from goats
Quality testing of goat milk
Chevon production in goats
Comparison of goat meat with chicken and mutton
Steps for prevention of disease in goats
Difference between goats and sheep

CONTINUOUS PROCESSING OF RTD TEA AND COFFEE BEVERAGES

The integrated Extraction System (IES)
Concentration of tea and coffee extracts
High quality tea concentrates
High quality coffee concentrates

COLD CHAIN SUPPLY

Current state of Indian agricultural industry
The Indian food processing industry
The food supply chain
Food supply chain cluster
The cold chain
Supply chain expertise
Food packaging
Standards
Food safety and hygiene
Importance of freezing and cold chain in food production and distribution
Spoilage
Microbial Spoilage
Autolytic Spoilage (enzymatic)
Oxidative Spoilage
Refrigeration and freezing
Quality of frozen food vs. fresh

PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION OF FISH

Drying
Natural drying
Mechanical drying
Solar drying
Salting
Smoking
Fermenting
Boiling
Canning

UHT PLANT FOR MILK IN ASEPTIC POUCHES

Complete unit of UHT Plant
Economical
Principle of operation
UHT sterilizer
Automatic UHT plant
Balancing equipment
The process of sterilization
Cleaning
Homogenizer
Functional description
CIP system
Functional description
Coding unit
Film web controller
Pouch counter
Specifications for packaging material
Recommendations of the packaging film

PLANT ECONOMICS OF AQUACULTURE SHRIMP FARMING