The properties of thermal expansion for both steel and concrete are approximately the same. This along with excellent bendability property makes steel the best material as reinforcement in concrete structures. Another reason steel works effectively as reinforcement is that it bonds well with concrete. When passive reinforcement (steel bars) is employed, the structure is known as reinforced concrete structure. In pre-stressed concrete structure, the reinforcement (steel wire) is stressed prior to subjecting the structure to loading, which may be viewed as active reinforcement. Passive steel reinforcing bars, also known as rebars, should necessarily be strong in tension and, at the same time, be ductile enough to be shaped or bent.

Steel rebar is most commonly used as a tensioning devise to reinforce concrete to help hold the concrete in a compressed state. Concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but virtually without strength in tension. To compensate for this imbalance in a concrete slab behavior, reinforcement bar is cast into it to carry the tensile loads. The surface of the reinforcement bar may be patterned to form a better bond with the concrete.

Reinforced concrete gets its strength from the two materials, steel and concrete, working together. To get them working together, it is critical that the steel be adequately bonded to the concrete. Achieving this bond is called developing the bar, and many aspects of reinforcement design are geared toward achieving development.

Steel rebars are the time proven match for reinforcing concrete structures. RC structures are designed on the principle that steel and concrete act together to withstand induced forces. The aim of the reinforced concrete designer is to combine the reinforcement with the concrete in such a manner that sufficient of the relatively expensive reinforcement is incorporated to resist tensile and shear forces, whilst utilizing the comparatively inexpensive concrete to resist the compressive forces.

To achieve this aim, the designer needs to determine, not only the amount of reinforcement to be used, but how it is to be distributed and where it is to be positioned. These decisions of the designer are critical to the successful performance of reinforced concrete and it is imperative that, during construction, reinforcement be positioned exactly as specified by the designer.

Originally concrete structures were made without reinforcement. The use of rebars has started in construction since at least the 18th century. Earlier cast iron was the materials for the rebars. This was because cast iron rebars were of high quality, and there was no corrosion on them for the life of the structure. Later the technique was refined by embedding the steel bars in the reinforced concrete structures. Plain mild steel rebars of strength 250 MPa were used widely till about 1960s. Square twisted steel bars (deformed bars) were introduced in 1960s. But these were phased out due to their inherent inadequacies.

Later the steel rebars of high yield strength were produced by raising carbon as well as manganese contents. After this high strength was incorporated to the steel rebars to a great extent by cold twisting. The cold twisted deformed (CTD) steel rebars were produced by cold working process, which was basically a mechanical process. It involved stretching and twisting of mild steel bars, beyond the yield plateau, and subsequently releasing the load. CTD round rebars having yield strength in the range of 415 MPa were introduced in the late 1960s. Since then, there has been an increasing demand for high strength deformed bars.

Quenched and self tempered (QST) steel bars were introduced during late 1970s. These steel bars are popularly known in India as thermo mechanical treated (TMT) steel rebars. Quenching and self tempering treatment of the steel rebars is a heat treatment process in which hot steel bars coming out of last rolling mill stand are rapidly quenched with water. Rapid quenching provides intensive cooling of surface resulting in the steel bars having hardened surface due to the martensitic structure with hot core. The steel rebars are then allowed to cool in ambient conditions. During the course of such cooling, the heat released from core tempers the hardened martensitic structure of the surface while core is turned into a ferrite pearlite structure. This quenching and self tempering process thus changes the structure of material to a composite structure of ductile ferrite pearlite composition in core and tough surface rim of tempered martensite providing an optimum combination of high strength, ductility, bendability
and other desirable properties. The steel reinforcing bars can be produced with strength of 415 MPa, 500 MPa, and 550 MPa and even higher. Quenching and tempering treatment can also be given to steel rebars having composition strengthened with micro alloying.

Fig 1 gives typical cross section of steel rebars produced by quenching and self tempering.

Fig 1 Typical cross section of steel rebar

For engineering a sound and durable concrete structure, it is essential to use reinforcement of appropriate characteristics and quality. Characterization is a process to control and ensure the quality of a material. Principal objective of characterization of a material is to ensure that it possesses the requisite properties necessary for its intended engineering usage. Properties of steel rebars are influenced by the chemical composition of the steel from which it is manufactured. Characterization is generally performed by checking the chemical composition and certain specified physical properties. The particular chemical ingredients and physical properties, which are selected for characterization, again depend on the attributes of the material that are important for its specified application. Characterization of steel rebars is as important as that of concrete for a sound RC structure of desired strength.

Characterization of steel reinforcement bars is important for design. Clear understanding of mechanics of reinforced concrete structures helps in understanding the intricacy involved with the characterization of rebars. Moreover, basic knowledge on manufacturing process of steel helps in appreciating various facets of the characterization.

Steel reinforcement bars are normally divided into primary and secondary reinforcement as given below. However there are also other minor uses.

• Primary reinforcement refers to the steel which is employed to guarantee the resistance needed by the structure as a whole to support the design loads.

• Secondary reinforcement is also known as distribution or thermal reinforcement and is employed for durability and aesthetic reasons, by providing enough localized resistance to limit cracking and resist stresses caused by effects such as temperature changes and shrinkage.

• Steel rebars are also employed to confer resistance to concentrated loads by providing enough localized resistance and stiffness for a load to spread through a wider area.

• Steel rebars may also be used to hold other steel bars in the correct position to accommodate their loads.

Steel has an expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete. If this were not so, it would cause problems through additional longitudinal and perpendicular stresses at temperatures different from the temperature of the setting. Although steel rebars have ribs that bind it mechanically to the concrete, it can still be pulled out of the concrete under high stresses, an occurrence that often accompanies a larger scale collapse of the structure. To prevent such a failure, steel rebars are either deeply embedded into adjacent structural members (40 to 60 times the diameter), or bent and hooked at the ends to lock it around the concrete and other steel rebars. This first approach increases the friction locking the steel rebars into place, while the second makes use of the high compressive strength of concrete.

Placing and fixing of reinforcement into the forms for the structure is one of the most important aspects of the construction of a structure. Cover has the most significant effect on the long term durability of reinforced concrete and therefore of the structure. Excess cover should be avoided as micro cracking due to bending stress can result in the growth and development of cracks and resulting corrosion of reinforcement or member loss due to spalling. The correct cover is required to ensure that reinforced concrete members meet their specified design requirements.

Common steel rebars are usually made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting. Normally the concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 for the avoidance of the corrosion reaction. Too little concrete cover can compromise with this protection through carbonation from the surface, and salt penetration. Too much concrete cover can cause bigger crack widths which also compromises the local protection. As rust takes up greater volume than the steel from which it was formed, it causes severe internal pressure on the surrounding concrete, leading to cracking, spalling, and ultimately structural failure. This phenomenon is known as oxide jacking. Lack of cover on parapet anchors/starter bars results in loss of durability, pop outs and corrosion of steel reinforcement bars.

Steel reinforcement bar corrosion is a particular problem where the concrete is exposed to salt water. Uncoated, corrosion resistant low carbon chromium alloyed, epoxy coated, galvanized or stainless steel rebars can be used in this situation at greater initial cost, but at significantly lower cost over the service life. Extra care is taken during the transport, fabrication, handling, installation, and concrete placement process when working with epoxy coated rebar, because damage reduces the long term corrosion resistance of these rebars

Reinforcement steel bars can also be displaced by impacts such as earthquakes, resulting in structural failure. The shaking of the earthquake causes rebars to burst from the concrete and buckle. Updated designs, including more circumferential rebar, can address this type of failure. Steel rebars can be made with various levels of ductility. The more ductile steel is capable of absorbing considerably more energy when deformed – a behavior that resists earthquake forces and is used in RC design.

The welding of reinforcement is generally not permitted for high tensile steel, since heating of hot rolled bars causes brittle fracture in the reinforcement. In the case of cold worked deformed (CTD) steel bars, heating causes the reinforcement to revert to mild steel as it loses the effects of strain hardening. Welding is normally permitted on mild steel and in some cases quenched and self tempered steel rebars.

The steel reinforcement bars delivered to the construction site must be stored neatly in a location specially prepared for this purpose. The steel reinforcement bars are to be stored on a platform off the ground to prevent corrosion and contamination due to deleterious matter (mud, grease, oil, paint, loose rust, etc).

If the steel reinforcement bars are to be stored for a long period of time or are stored in a marine environment (within 10 km of sea) the steel reinforcement bars piles need to be covered.

The condition of the steel reinforcement bars are to be preferably checked in the storage area before delivery to the point of use. The steel reinforcement bars are to be clean and free of all deleterious matter and cleaned by means of water jetting, degreasing or other method if required as the presence of the above have an adverse effect on the bond of reinforcement to concrete.

It is very important that steel reinforcement bars are not corroded to the point that pitting of the bars is evident. Pitting is a potential flaw which under cyclic loading can reduce the life of the structure significantly. If pitting of steel is greater than that permitted, the steel reinforcement bars must be rejected.

Bending dimensions of the steel reinforcement bars are to be frequently checked to ensure that the bars fit into the formwork and provide enough cover. The inside radius of bends is very important to ensure that the bars are not overstressed during bending.

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Over time, the welds of low frequency ERW pipe was found to be susceptible to selective seam corrosion, hook cracks, and inadequate bonding of the seams, so low frequency ERW is no longer used to manufacture pipe. The high frequency process is still being used to manufacture pipe for use in new pipeline construction

ERW steel pipes & tubes find widespread usage across industries and fields. In addition to various engineering industries, they are used for water, oil and gas distribution, line pipes, fencing, scaffolding, etc. They are also used for agricultural purposes, drinking water supply, and thermal power, for hand pumps for deep boring wells and also as protection for cables (telecom), among others. Depending on the requirement of the end user industry, ERW steel pipes & tubes are available in various wall thicknesses, diameters, and qualities. The different types include line precision pipes, tubular poles, electric poles, lightweight galvanised pipes for sprinkler irrigation, among others. The industry has sufficient capacity to manufacture the different types of pipes & tubes. High performance ERW steel pipes & tubes possess high strength, toughness and are corrosion resistant. In the manufacturing process of ERW steel pipes & tubes, the edges to be welded are mechanically pressed together and electric resistance or electric induction is used to generate the heat required for welding. With the adoption of better welding technology, ERW pipes & tubes are now widely used in the oil & gas sector. A number of ERW steel pipes & tubes production units are in the SSI sector. Higher demand from the oil & gas industry, infrastructure and automobile industries has led to a healthy increase in production of ERW steel pipes.

TYPES OF ERW PIPE

(1) Low-Frequency-Welded ERW (LF-ERW) Pipe

(2) High-Frequency-Welded ERW (HF-ERW) Pipe

(3) Direct-Current-Welded ERW (DC-ERW) Pipe

(1) Low-Frequency-Welded ERW (LF-ERW) Pipe

ERW pipe was introduced by Republic Steel in 1929 and variations of the original process are still in use today. Cans were formed continuously as described above, and welding was done with low-frequency alternating current (typically 120 cycles per second).

Low-frequency electric resistance weld, LF-ERW is Electric resistance welded (ERW) pipe manufactured by cold-forming a sheet of steel into a cylindrical shape. Current is then passed between the two edges of the steel to heat the steel to a point at which the edges are forced together to form a bond without the use of welding filler material. Initially this manufacturing process used low frequency A.C. current to heat the edges. This low frequency process was used from the 1920s until 1970. In 1970, the low frequency process was superseded by a high frequency ERW process which produced a higher quality weld.

Over time, the welds of low frequency ERW pipe was found to be susceptible to selective seam corrosion, hook cracks, and inadequate bonding of the seams, so low frequency ERW is no longer used to manufacture pipe. The high frequency process is still being used to manufacture pipe for use in new pipeline construction.

(2) High-Frequency-Welded ERW (HF-ERW) Pipe

Between about 1960 and 1970, most manufacturers of low-frequency-welded ERW pipe either converted to high-frequency welding (450 kilocycles per second) or went out of business. The high-frequency welding process was easier to control, the equipment was easier to maintain, and it produced weld zones with better resistance to brittle fracture than the low-frequency process.

(3) Direct-Current-Welded ERW (DC-ERW) Pipe

ERW pipe made with direct current was introduced around 1930 by Youngstown Sheet & Tube Company. Individual cans were cold formed from hot-rolled plates of more than 50 feet in length. Each pipe was thus welded as a separate unit compared to the continuous process.

Physical Properties of Piping Materials

The reasons pipe and tube are made from different materials is due the to physical properties of different materials. Properties such as:

• Malleability
• Ductility
• Brittleness
• Hardness
• Elasticity
• Conductivity
• Chemical resistance / resistance to corrosion

Malleability

Malleability can be defined as the property of a metal to be deformed by compression without cracking or rupturing. This property is very useful for copper tubing systems which allow the tube to be bent to follow the required route quickly without the need for expensive and time consuming fittings:

Ductility

Ductility is a mechanical property used to describe the extent to which materials can be deformed plastically without fracture. Ductile metals lend themselves to be formed into desired cross sectional shapes easier and therefore are cheaper to manufacture.

Brittleness

The tendency for a metal to crack or break with deformation. Metals displaying this property are not readily used for pipe or tube as this is a disadvantage to a material.

Hardness Is the property of being rigid and resistant to pressure; not easily scratched. It is measured on Mohs scale. It’s presence in metals can be an advantage for high pressure systems but can be a disadvantage as it can increase machining, cutting and fabrication times.

Elasticity

The property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load can regain its original dimensions when unloaded. This property is utilized in piping system designs where pipes may expand or contract due to temperature differences. The elasticity of piping materials can help the designer cater for this.

Conductivity

The ability of a material to conduct electrical current or heat. Some piping systems high conductivity metals for high heat transfer while other piping systems use low conductivity plastic materials to prevent heat transfer.

Chemical resistance/ Resistance to Corrosion

The degree to which a material resists the corrosive action of industrial chemicals. This is probably the most significant property which affects the choice of piping material and is the biggest contributor to the price of material. Specialist alloys of stainless steel such as Hastelloy can be 10 to 20 times more expensive that standard stainless steel and can be slower to fit and weld which increase installation costs.

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The properties of thermal expansion for both steel and concrete are approximately the same. This along with excellent bendability property makes steel the best material as reinforcement in concrete structures. Another reason steel works effectively as reinforcement is that it bonds well with concrete. When passive reinforcement (steel bars) is employed, the structure is known as reinforced concrete structure. In pre-stressed concrete structure, the reinforcement (steel wire) is stressed prior to subjecting the structure to loading, which may be viewed as active reinforcement. Passive steel reinforcing bars, also known as rebars, should necessarily be strong in tension and, at the same time, be ductile enough to be shaped or bent.

Steel rebar is most commonly used as a tensioning devise to reinforce concrete to help hold the concrete in a compressed state. Concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but virtually without strength in tension. To compensate for this imbalance in a concrete slab behavior, reinforcement bar is cast into it to carry the tensile loads. The surface of the reinforcement bar may be patterned to form a better bond with the concrete.

Reinforced concrete gets its strength from the two materials, steel and concrete, working together. To get them working together, it is critical that the steel be adequately bonded to the concrete. Achieving this bond is called developing the bar, and many aspects of reinforcement design are geared toward achieving development.

Steel rebars are the time proven match for reinforcing concrete structures. RC structures are designed on the principle that steel and concrete act together to withstand induced forces. The aim of the reinforced concrete designer is to combine the reinforcement with the concrete in such a manner that sufficient of the relatively expensive reinforcement is incorporated to resist tensile and shear forces, whilst utilizing the comparatively inexpensive concrete to resist the compressive forces.

To achieve this aim, the designer needs to determine, not only the amount of reinforcement to be used, but how it is to be distributed and where it is to be positioned. These decisions of the designer are critical to the successful performance of reinforced concrete and it is imperative that, during construction, reinforcement be positioned exactly as specified by the designer.

Originally concrete structures were made without reinforcement. The use of rebars has started in construction since at least the 18th century. Earlier cast iron was the materials for the rebars. This was because cast iron rebars were of high quality, and there was no corrosion on them for the life of the structure. Later the technique was refined by embedding the steel bars in the reinforced concrete structures. Plain mild steel rebars of strength 250 MPa were used widely till about 1960s. Square twisted steel bars (deformed bars) were introduced in 1960s. But these were phased out due to their inherent inadequacies.

Later the steel rebars of high yield strength were produced by raising carbon as well as manganese contents. After this high strength was incorporated to the steel rebars to a great extent by cold twisting. The cold twisted deformed (CTD) steel rebars were produced by cold working process, which was basically a mechanical process. It involved stretching and twisting of mild steel bars, beyond the yield plateau, and subsequently releasing the load. CTD round rebars having yield strength in the range of 415 MPa were introduced in the late 1960s. Since then, there has been an increasing demand for high strength deformed bars.

Quenched and self tempered (QST) steel bars were introduced during late 1970s. These steel bars are popularly known in India as thermo mechanical treated (TMT) steel rebars. Quenching and self tempering treatment of the steel rebars is a heat treatment process in which hot steel bars coming out of last rolling mill stand are rapidly quenched with water. Rapid quenching provides intensive cooling of surface resulting in the steel bars having hardened surface due to the martensitic structure with hot core. The steel rebars are then allowed to cool in ambient conditions. During the course of such cooling, the heat released from core tempers the hardened martensitic structure of the surface while core is turned into a ferrite pearlite structure. This quenching and self tempering process thus changes the structure of material to a composite structure of ductile ferrite pearlite composition in core and tough surface rim of tempered martensite providing an optimum combination of high strength, ductility, bendability and other desirable properties. The steel reinforcing bars can be produced with strength of 415 MPa, 500 MPa, and 550 MPa and even higher. Quenching and tempering treatment can also be given to steel rebars having composition strengthened with micro alloying.

1 gives typical cross section of steel rebars produced by quenching and self tempering.

1 Typical cross section of steel rebar

For engineering a sound and durable concrete structure, it is essential to use reinforcement of appropriate characteristics and quality. Characterization is a process to control and ensure the quality of a material. Principal objective of characterization of a material is to ensure that it possesses the requisite properties necessary for its intended engineering usage. Properties of steel rebars are influenced by the chemical composition of the steel from which it is manufactured. Characterization is generally performed by checking the chemical composition and certain specified physical properties. The particular chemical ingredients and physical properties, which are selected for characterization, again depend on the attributes of the material that are important for its specified application. Characterization of steel rebars is as important as that of concrete for a sound RC structure of desired strength.

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Grating is a structural element that has a high load-bearing capacity with a low dead weight and a high level of transparency. The positive-fitting connection of the bearing bars and cross bars with the surround make the grating not only a very stable, but also visually attractive product. The applications are very diverse, as grating is used everywhere in industry and architecture. As an extremely robust, safe yet light platform flooring, the grating is indispensable in all areas of heavy industry.

Grating is installed in refineries, power stations, steel mills, mines and on oil platforms. Grating is being used increasingly more in the logistics industry as platform flooring and shelves. Architects and building owners appreciate the grating as a product which is both aesthetically pleasing and functional, be it used as a decorative facade cladding, a suspended ceiling or sun shield.

Steel grating is a kind of open steel member with its bearing bars & cross bars jointing at their intersections either by welding or by locking.

Electroforged Steel Gratings are made using the electroforging process. In this process, the sqaure twisted rods (Cross Members) are fused into the main load bearing members at using a special welding machine at very high current and tonnage. The Cross Members are properly set-in the Load Members such that it projects out of the grating top member by only a little more than 1 mm. This improves the slip resistance during walking. Electroforged Grating Panels are generally manufactured to 6000 mm lengths.

Grating is composed of following member:

BEARING BARS

Load carrying bars made from steel strip or slit sheet or from rolled or extruded aluminum and extending in the direction of the grating span.

Bearing bar types

Steel grating is made up of bearing bar and cross bar as certain distance by welding or pressure locked. Bearing bar have the types: flat type (also called plain type), serrated type, I bar type (I plain type and I serrated type). According to the bearing bar materials, there are carbon steel bars, mild carbon steel bars, stainless steel bars and so on.

Flat type bearing bars are made from steel strip or slit sheet or from rolled steel. These are produced using high quality steel materials which exhibit good hardness, ductility and tensile strength. Our bearing bars provide extremely good level support for floor joists. They have excellent finishing and based on clients’ need we provide them with untreated, galvanized or painted bearing bars.

Surface of Load Bearing Bar is Plain.

Commonly used size: 25 x 3mm

Commonly used pitch: 23mm

Applications: flat type bearing bar gratings are the most widely used gratings, available for flooring sidewalk, all kinds of ditch cover, stair tread etc.

Serrated type-bearing bars delivers excellent performance in application areas, which are slippery, oily, moisture filled. They form a sort of anti-slip grating with their non-slip notches offering them a very good grip. They are made using mild carbon steel or stainless steel materials. We offer variety of serrated products in this category such as, normal serrated, serrated interrupted, serrated trapezoid, serrated carrier bar and serrated carrier bar with cross bar. For inclined gangways with a pitch of 10-25 degrees, we also provide grating with tread strips.

Notches are made on tip of the Load Bearing Bar to improve skid resistance.

Commonly used size: 25 x 5mm, 30 x 3mm, 30 x 5mm, 32 x 5mm,
40 x 5mm, 50 x 5mm

Commonly used pitch: 23mm, 30mm, 34mm, 35mm, 40mm, 41mm,
45mm, 50mm.

Advantages: Serrated type bearing bar gratings are best non-skid property & safety compared with plain grating.

I type bearing bar is one among the highly demanded product in our range. Features such as high strength, cost-efficient production processes and ease of installation are incorporated in all of our mild steel grating products. Because of its high strength and durability, these bar gratings can withstand extreme loads, quite comparable to solid floorings. Our products have wide range of applications such as Walkways, Platforms, Safety barriers, Drainage covers and Ventilation grates. Standard panels available for this product are in 6 × 1 meter at any size of bearing bar/cross bar and at any center distance as per load design.

Features: I type bearing bar is lighter, not substantially weaken the case of load capacity more economical and practical comparing with plain grating.

CROSS BARS

The connecting bars, made from steel strip, slit sheet, or rolled bars, or from rolled or extruded aluminum, which extend across the bearing bars, usually perpendicular to them. In the Electroforged Steel Gratings, Cross Bars are generally of the Square twisted type. Where they intersect the bearing bars, are welded, forged to them.

Commonly used size: 6mm Square Twisted, 8mm Square Twisted

Commonly used pitches: 38mm, 50mm, 75mm, 100mm

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The Introduction of electric arc furnace for steel making
from sponge iron led further to smaller plants to make steel from
metal scrap.

The finished products are steel billets/Ingots. Steels are
mainly divided into two large groups (a) Plane carbon steel (b)
Alloy steel including stainless steel. Various grade of carbon
steel have different percentage of carbon content depending on
the purpose for which there are used.

Carbon Steels are three types

1. Non Sulphurized

2. Re-sulphurized

3. Re-phosphorized and Re-sulphurized

Aloy steel are also classified as (a) High strength and low
alloy steel (b) Alloy Tools steel (c) Stainless steel (d) Heat
Resistance steel.

All the steel used must first be melted and afterwards
cast. By far the greater quantity is cast into moulds to product
billets which are subsequently fashioned by hot working into
various products Billets may vary in weight and size. The details
of its technique employed in casting of different size.

The size and shape of Billets/Ingots depends upon the
product to be made and the types of equipment available for hot
working.

Liquid steel readily dissolves oxygen up to a solubility
limit. The addition of ferro alloys to the liquid steel reduce

the oxygen content.

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Fasteners may be classified into groups and sub-groups according to the functions they perform. Probably the main division is into:

a) Detachable fasteners (e.g. nut and bolt, screw, etc.);

b) Non-detachable fasteners (e.g. rivet, weld, adhesive).

Fastener material can be important when choosing a fastener due to keeping in view the strength, brittleness, corrosion resistance, galvanic corrosion properties. Cost of course an important factor which determines which materials to choose from. Let us now see them in details.

Steel

Steel is the most common material used for making nuts and bolts and fastener material. These are available plain. They are also available with various surface treatments. These may include such as zinc plating, galvanization, and chrome plating.

The grade of steel to be used may vary largely based on your need. They are usually available in 4 standard grades.

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To ascertain the quality, safety and performance certain regulations are applicable such as BIS standardization and Explosive License etc. While all the cylinders are spray-painted with a signal red colour. BPC cylinders have yellow ring around the bung. HPC cylinders in blue ring and IOC cylinder are fully red. In case of 19 Kg. cylinders the top is painted olive green. The cylinders carry their complete history with regard to their serial number, Tare/ Gross weight, water capacity, ISE monogram test date, manufacturer identification and year of manufacturing. LP Gas cylinders can come in many different sizes depending on the application. The gross weight of an LP Gas cylinder is often one of the limiting factors in selecting the size, especially for domestic applications.

The diameter is also a very important factor because it has implications with the dimensions of the conveyors in the filling plant, and the pallets and racks used for storage etc. For domestic use, cylinders typically will have capacities ranging from 4kg to 15kg whereas for commercial and industrial use, these will range from 45kg to 50kg. Smaller cylinders i.e. 1kg to 3kg capacities are used for camping equipment and in developing countries where they often serve as an entry level for LP Gas applications in low income households - mainly for cooking. LP Gas cylinders will almost always be used in the vertical position although forklift cylinders are typically designed to be used horizontally with capacities ranging from 15kg to 22kg.

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