Description
TECHNOLOGY OF FIBRES WITH MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND PROPERTIES WITH PROJECT PROFILES (Chemically Resistant Fibres, Fluorinated Fibres, Thermally Resistant Fibres, Kynol Fibres, Aramid Fibres, HM-HT Fibres, Polyethylene Fibre, Polyester Fibres, Polyamide Fibres, Polyolin Fibres, Acrylic Fibres & Recycling of Polymers)
PREFACE
A fibre is defined as any product capable of being woven or otherwise made into fabric. It is smallest visible unit of textile product. Afibre can be defined as a pliable hair like strand that is very small in diameter in relation to its length. Fibres are the fundamental units or the building blocks used in the making of textile yarns and fabrics.
Fibres are the fundamental units used in making of textile yarns and later on into fabric. Thus fibres are the essential components and basic units and are an essential components for making yarns. These fibres are of many types.
Most synthetic and cellulostic manufactured fibres are created by extrusion-forcing a thick, viscous liquid (about the consistency of cold honey) through the tiny holes of a device called a spinneret to form continuous filaments of semi solid polymer.
In their initial state, the fiber forming polymers are solids and therefore must be first converted into a fluid state for extrusion. This is usually achieved by melting, if the polymers are thermoplastic synthetics (i.e. they soften and melt when heated),or by dissolving them in a suitable solvent if they are non thermoplastic cellulosics. If they cannot be dissolved or melted directly, they must be chemically treated to form soluble or thermoplastic derivatives. Recent technologies have been developed for some specially fibers made of polymers that do not melt, dissolve, or form appropriate derivatives. Kynol, generally known as novoloid fiber, is characterized by its high flame and chemical resistance Novoloid fiber technology was initially developed in the United States with commercial production facilities later established in Japan. End uses for Kynol are varted and business development is focused primarily on speciality applications.
Made from an organic formula derived from three dimensional cross linked phenolic resin. Kynol exhibits unique properties that provide a distinct advantage in applications as diverse as electric arc protection, gaskets, mechanical packing and friction paper. Over the years. Kynol has also replaced asbestos in various industrial applications and is used as a precursor for carbon and activated carbon fibers materials.
Aramid fibers are a class of heat resistant and strong synthetic fibers. They are used in aerospace and military applications, for ballistic rated body armor fabric and ballistic composites, in bicycle tires, and as an asbestos substitute. the name is a portmanteau of “aromatic polyamide”.
The book provides chapters on Chemically Resistant Fibres, Fluorinated Fiberes, Thermally Resistant Fibres, Kynol Fibres, Aramid Fibres, HM-HT Fibres, Polyethylene Fibre, polyester Fibres, Polyamide. Fibres, Polyolin Fibres, Acrylic Fibres & Recycling of Polymer etc.
CHEMICALLY RESISTANT FIBRES
Chlorinated fibres PVDC (ARH)
Typical properties of PVDC fibres
Fluorinated fibres. PTFE, PVF, PVDC and FEP (ARH)
Continuous filament, staple and floc forms of Teflon PTFE
Selected fluorine containing chemically resistant polymers
Poly(etheretherketones) PEEK (BM)
Polyetherketones
Resistance of Tefzel ETFE fibres to selected chemicals after 7 days exposure
Thermal transitions of the various PEK polymers, where E signifies an ether and K a ketone segment
PEEK fibre performance factors
Properties of PEEK
Fibre products
PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF FIBRE
PEEK and other fibres exposed to elevated temperatures for 28 days in air
PEEK and other fibres exposed for 7 days in pressurised steam
Cycles to failure for PEEK and other fibres as threads-thread on thread abrasion at 120 C loaded at 0.05 cn/tex
Fibre applications
The Chemical Resistance of PEEK Fibres at Various Temperatures
Poly(phenylene sulphide) PPS (ARH)
Physical properties of PPS fibres
Chemical and solvent resistance of PPS fibres
Poly(ether imide), PEI (ARH)
Comparison of properties of PEI with PPS and PEEK fibres
Chemical resistance of PEI fibres
Others (ARH)
THERMALLY RESISTANT FIBRES
Thermosets (HE and HS)
Melamine formaldehyde fibres Basofil (BASF) (HE)
Chemistry of condensation reaction
Resins and fibre manufacturing
Properties of fibres
Physical properties of basofil fibres
Thermogravimetric analysis of basofil
Diameter distribution of Basofil fibres
Chemical resistance of Basofil fibres after 28 days exposure at room temperature
Staple length distribution of Basofil fibres
Cross sections of Basofil fibres
Staple length (mm)
Smoke toxicity of basofil fibres
End uses
Novoloid fibres, Kynok (HS)
Polymer structure of Kynol novoloid fibre
Typical properties of Kynol fibres
AROMATIC POLYAMIDES AND POLYARIMIDS (ARH)
Aramid fibres
Arimid fibres
Selected examples of polyarimid fibres
Properties of commercial polyimide and poly (amid imide) fibres
Poly(aramid imide) fibres
SEMI CARBON FIBRES: OXIDISED ACRYLICS (NS)
Development and manufacture
Theory of oxidation of polyacrylonitrile
Oxidation oven
Schematic diagram of acrylic tow oxidation
Acrylic low passing through an air oven at 200 C
Typical differential scanning calorimeter curves (heating rate 20 C/min)
The structure of polyacrylonitrite chain segments cyclising and transforming into a ladder like, oxidised chain
The oxidation process
properties
Cross sectional micrographs of Courtelle fibres
General properties of oxidised acrylic Fibres
Applications
Economic considerations
Operational costs of fireblocking fabrics fitted to passenger seats in selected British Airways aircraft in 1986
heat treated oxidised acrylics
Polybenzimidazole, PBI (CT)
Development and structure
High performance fibres
SYNTHESIS AND FIBRE MANUFACTURE
PBI polymerisation
Fibre properties and applications
Thermal stability of PBI fibre
Tensile strength after immersion in inorganic acids and bases
Thermal linear shrinkage of PBI fibre after 24 hours exposure
Thermogravimetric analysis of PBI fibre in air and nitrogen.
Acid vapour resistance of PBI fibre after exposure to sulphuric acid vapour 75% (w/v) concentration
Tensile strength after immersion in organic chemicals
Polybenzoxazoles, PBO (ARH)
Typical physical properties of PBI fibre
PBI fibre available products
Final comments (ARH)
Summary of thermal and flammability parameters
Peak heat release (PHR) values for selected heat resistant fibres and polymers
ARAMID FIBRES
Polymer preparation
Basic synthesis
The aromatic polyamide polymerisation process
PPTA synthesised by low temperature polycondensation of p-phenylene diamine (PPD) and terephthaloyl chloride (TCI)
The Higashi synthesis polycondensation of terephthalic acid and p-phenylene diamine.
The Higashi triaryl phosphite reaction
Polymer chemical structure of Technora
Copolyamides
Other aromatic polyamides
Spinning
Solution properties
Spinning of fibres
Schematic representation of the liquid crystalline solution
Schematical representation of the extrusion of the liquid crystalline solution in the dry jet wet spinning process
Crystal orientation of para aramid fibre
Armid Types
Aramid types
Structure and properties
Characteristics of aramid fibres
Structure
Schematic representation of the microstructure of (a) semicrystalline polymers such as nylon 6 and (b) PPTA (fibre axis vertical)
Radial pleated structure model of PPTA fibre
Analysis of mechanical properties
Some useful comparisons between aromatic polyamides and copolyamides
TMolecular requirements for improved characteristics of HM-HT aromatic fibres
Schematic representation of a fracture model of PPTA fibre.
A selection of observed mechanical properties
Typical stress strain curves of (a) Kevlar fibres (b) other commercially representative industrial yarns
Properties of commercially representative reinforcement fibres
Applications
Systems engineering
Aramid market segments and key attributes
Ballistic and life protection
Protective clothing with a focus on fire protection
Advanced composites
Stress strain behaviour for unidirectional reinforced epoxy matrix composites
Other important applications and future directions
HIGH MODULUS HIGH TENACITY (hm-ht) FIBRES
Melt spun wholly aromatic polyester (DB)
Thermotropic liquid crystal polymers
Schematic of molecular chain structure of fibres
Vectra and Vectran
Vectran fibre chemical structure
Fibre production
Properties for high strength thermotropic LCP fibres
Fibre properties
Comparison of fibre to fibre abrasion resistance
Tensile strength vs flexural fatigue of Vectran HS and aramids
TLCP parallel strand rope stress relaxation
Applications
Commercial uses for TLCP fibres
PBO AND RELATED POLYMERS (RTY AND CLS)
Introduction
Chemical repeat units of related ordered polymers (a) PBT (b) ABPBO
Manufacture of PBO fibres
Simplified schematic of PBO polymerisation
Structure of PBO fibres
Properties of PBO fibres
Wide angle X-ray diffraction pattern of a single PBO fibre, showing the high degree of molecular orientation characteristic of rigid rod polymer fibres (The fibre axis is vertical)
Scanning electron micrograph of a damaged PBO fibre, showing the surface skin and fibrillar structure.
Mechanical properties of a range of high performance fibres
Applications of PBO fibres
Conclusions
PIPD or M5 rigid rod polymer (DJS)
A new HM-HT fibre
MONOMER SELECTION AND SYNTHESES
Polymerisation
Spinning and fibre properties
The crystal structure of M5-HT seen along the chain axis
Applications and outlook
Russian aromatic fibres (KEP)
Monomers and polymers
Provisional characterisation of M5 fibre, spun at bench scale, compared with commercial fibres
Structural units derived from reactants investigated in Russian HM-HT fibre research
Polymer solutions and fibre formation
Fibre production
FIBRE PRODUCTION
Principal scheme for fibre production based on heterocyclic polyamides and copolyamides
Para aramid and PHA fibre structure features
Stress strain plots for Terlon yarns
Stress strain plots for SVM yarns
Stress strain plots for Armos yarns
Fibre mechanical properties
Fibre Structure
Mechanical properties
Anisotropy of mechanical properties
Thermal Properties
Effect of ageing on mechanical properties
Fire resistance and thermal characteristics
Armos fibres and applications
Properties of high modulus reinforcement and technical yarns
Properties of highly thermally stable yarns
MODIFIED FIBRES
Property comparison of heterocyclic polymer fibers-mother fibres and modified fibres
Comparison of tenacity and fire resistance of various aramid and other fibres
Conclusions
Specific mechanical properties
The SSE process
Solid state extrusion high molecular weight polyethylene fibres (GW)
Schematic view of conjugating process
Process description
Structural changes during SSE
Structure of the final solid state extruded product
Structure
Properties
Strength comparison of various yarns
Tensile strength (g/d)
Effect of temperature on thermal strength
Effect of temperature on heat shrinkage
Creep elongation at 20% breaking load
UV resistance (light and water exposure test based on JIS B 7754)
Effect of surface treatments on interiaminar shear stress (ILSS)
Applications
Economics
POLYESTER FIBRE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Polyester fibre
Fibre manufacturing process
Fibre Specification
Denier
Cut Length
Tensile Properties
Crimp Properties
Spin Finish
Dry heat Shrinkage
Dye take up
Fused Fibres
Lustre
Physical and chemical
properties of polyester fibre
Problems which occur during manufacture of polyester steple fibre
Polymerisation
Melt spinning
Cutting
Problems faced in polymerisation
Properties of Polymer
What can spinning mills do to overcome this problem
Problems faced in melt spinning
Control of C.V% of Denier
Fused fibres
Problems faced at draw line
Spin finish
Crimp
Undrawn fibre
Plasticised fibre
Tenacity/Dye ability Problems faced in cutting/baling
Nail Head/Tip Fusion
Opening of fibre cluster after opening
Over length/Multi length
SPECIALITY FIBRES IN POLYESTER
High/low shrink fibres
Micro denier
Flame retardant
Cationic dyeable
Easy dyeable
Low pill
Antibacterial
Super high tenacity
Modified cross section
Conducting fibre
Low melt fibre
POLYAMIDE FIBERS
Introduction
Type of Polyamides
Nylon 6 and 6.6
Aramid fibers
Other Polyamides
Manufacturing of Polyamide filaments
POLYOLEFIN FIBERS AND VINYL FIBERS
Polyolefin fibers
Vinyl Fibers
Vinon
Vinal
Vinyon vinal matrix fiber
Saran
Polytetrafluoroethylene
ACRYLIC FIBERS
Acrylic
Modacrylic
Nytril
Lastrile
RECYCLING OF POLYMERS
Recycling Methods
RECYCLING OF POLY (ETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE)
Direct Reuse
Combined recovery of silver and PET
PET degradation by glycolysis, hydrolysis, and methanolysis
Reuse after Modification
Glycolysis
Flow diagram of a typical system for glycolytic recycling of PET waste
Methanolysis
Ammonolysis
Hydrolysis
Depolymerization in Supercritical Fluids
Enzymatic Depolymerization
Main reaction of PET depolymerization in superitical methanol
incineration
RECYCLING OF POLYURETHANES
Reprocessing of polyurethane waste by thermopressing
Thermopressing Process
Kneader Process
Recycling of polyurethane waste via partial decomposition in kneader
Hydrolysis
Glycolysis
Ammonolysis
Stoichiometry of ammonolysis reaction of a polyetherurethane
Alcoholysis of polyurethane (PU) waste. By the action of small chain alcohols (e.g.diol), PU is decomposed yielding homogeneous, liquid and mixed polyols
Flow scheme of a chemical recycling process based on ammonolytic cleavage and separation of polyol by supercritical ammonia.
RECYCLING OF POLY (VINYL CHLORIDE)
Recycling of PVC film scrap
Characterization of used PVC
Schematic of cable design
Compounding of cable filler cores
In-Line PVC Scrap
PVC floor Coverings
PVC Roofing sheets
Post Consumer PVC
RECYCLING OF CURED EPOXIES
Process of extraction of epoxy resin dissolved in nitric acid and neutralization of the extract
RECYCLING OF MIXED PLASTICS WASTE
Direct Reuse
Schematic of Radlite technology
Conceptual model of physical compatibilization
Homogeneous Fractions
Liquefaction of Mixed Plastics
Post Consumer Polyethylene Films
Typical route for recycling plastic bags.
RECYCLING OF GROUND RUBBER TIRES
RECYCLING OF CAR BATTERIES
Process steps in preparation of polypropylene regrind.
PLASTIC RECYCLING EQUIPMENT AND MACHINERY
Plastocompactor
Debaling and initial size reduction
Shredder
Cutter or Guillotine
Screw Shredder
Granulators
Fine Grinding
Cleaning and Selection
Dry Separation
Schematic of air stream separator
Wet Separation
Schematic of air stream (cascade) separator
Schematic of vibrating air separator
Other Methods
Resin Detectors Type and Configuration
Automatic Sortation
Typical separation and sorting setups using three main detector systems
PVC/PET AND COMMINGLED PLASTICS SORTATION
Recycle installations
PLANT ECONOMICS OF FIBRE COTTON FROM SILICA SAND
Plant & Machinery
Fixed Capital
Total Working Capital/Month
Total Capital Investment
Turn Over/Annum
PLANT ECONOMICS OF FIBRE GLASS SHEETS
Plant & Machinery
Fixed Capital
Total Working Capital/Month
Total Capital Investment
Turn Over/Annum
PLANT ECONOMICS OF FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC
Plant & Machinery
Fixed Capital
Total Working Capital/Month
Total Capital Investment
Turn Over/Annum
PLANT ECONOMICS OF MEDIUM DENSITY FIBREBOARD
Plant & Machinery
Fixed Capital
Total Working Capital/Month
Total Capital Investment
Turn Over/Annum
PLANT ECONOMICS OF RECYCLED SYNTHETIC POLYESTER STAPLE FIBRE PLANT
Plant & Machinery
Fixed Capital
Total Working Capital/Month
Total Capital Investment
Turn Over/Annum
PLANT ECONOMICS OF RUBBERISED CORK SHEET
Plant & Machinery
Fixed Capital
Total Working Capital/Month
Total Capital Investment
Turn Over/Annum
