Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known as solar panels. The common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts. By itself this isn’t much – but remember these solar cells are tiny. When combined into a large solar panel, considerable amounts of renewable energy can be generated.

PV Module or Solar PV Module is an assembly of photovoltaic (PV) cells, also known as solar cells. To achieve a required voltage and current, a group of PV modules (also called PV panels) are wired into large array that called PV array. A PV module is the essential component of any PV system that converts sunlight directly into direct current (DC) electricity. PV modules can be wired together in series and/or parallel to deliver voltage and current in a particular system requires.

PV is emerging as a major power resource, steadily becoming more affordable and proving to be more reliable than utilities. Photovoltaic power promises a brighter, cleaner future for our children.

Using the technology we have today we could equal the entire electric production of the United States with photovoltaic power plants using only about 12,000 square miles.

In 1839, Edmund Becquerel discovered the process of using sunlight to produce an electric current in a solid material, but it wasn't until a century later that scientists eventually learned that the photovoltaic effect caused certain materials to convert light energy into electrical energy.

The photovoltaic effect is the basic principal process by which a PV cell converts sunlight into electricity. When light shines on a PV cell, it may be reflected, absorbed, or pass right through. The absorbed light generates electricity.

In the early 1950s, photovoltaic (PV) cells were developed as a spin-off of transistor technology. Very thin layers of pure silicon are impregnated with tiny amounts of other elements. When exposed to sunlight, small amounts of electricity are produced. Originally this technology was a costly source of power for satellites but it has steadily come down in price making it affordable to power homes and businesses.

CELLS MODULES AND ARRAYS

Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce higher voltages, currents and power levels. Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and panels.

Photovoltaic cells, modules, panels and arrays

The performance of PV modules and arrays are generally rated according to their maximum DC power output (watts) under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Standard Test Conditions are defined by a module (cell) operating temperature of 25o C (77o F), and incident solar irradiance level of 1000 W/m2 and under Air Mass 1.5 spectral distribution. Since these conditions are not always typical of how PV modules and arrays operate in the field, actual performance is usually 85 to 90 percent of the STC rating.

Today’s photovoltaic modules are extremely safe and reliable products, with minimal failure rates and projected service lifetimes of 20 to 30 years. Most major manufacturers offer warranties of 20 or more years for maintaining a high percentage of initial rated power output. When selecting PV modules, look for the product listing (UL), qualification testing and warranty information in the module manufacturer’s specifications.

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PV is emerging as a major power resource, steadily becoming more affordable and proving to be more reliable than utilities. Photovoltaic power promises a brighter, cleaner future for our children.

Using the technology we have today we could equal the entire electric production of the United States with photovoltaic power plants using only about 12,000 square miles.

In 1839, Edmund Becquerel discovered the process of using sunlight to produce an electric current in a solid material, but it wasn't until a century later that scientists eventually learned that the photovoltaic effect caused certain materials to convert light energy into electrical energy.

The photovoltaic effect is the basic principal process by which a PV cell converts sunlight into electricity. When light shines on a PV cell, it may be reflected, absorbed, or pass right through. The absorbed light generates electricity.

In the early 1950s, photovoltaic (PV) cells were developed as a spin-off of transistor technology. Very thin layers of pure silicon are impregnated with tiny amounts of other elements. When exposed to sunlight, small amounts of electricity are produced. Originally this technology was a costly source of power for satellites but it has steadily come down in price making it affordable to power homes and businesses.

CELLS MODULES AND ARRAYS

Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce higher voltages, currents and power levels. Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and panels.

Photovoltaic cells, modules, panels and arrays.

The performance of PV modules and arrays are generally rated according to their maximum DC power output (watts) under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Standard Test Conditions are defined by a module (cell) operating temperature of 25o C (77o F), and incident solar irradiance level of 1000 W/m2 and under Air Mass 1.5 spectral distribution. Since these conditions are not always typical of how PV modules and arrays operate in the field, actual performance is usually 85 to 90 percent of the STC rating.

Today’s photovoltaic modules are extremely safe and reliable products, with minimal failure rates and projected service lifetimes of 20 to 30 years. Most major manufacturers offer warranties of 20 or more years for maintaining a high percentage of initial rated power output. When selecting PV modules, look for the product listing (UL), qualification testing and warranty information in the module manufacturer’s specifications.

Cells: Semiconductor device that converts sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity.

Modules: PV modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective laminate and are the fundamental building block of PV systems.

Panels: PV panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit.

Array: A PV array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and panels.

Photovoltaic Cell

A single PV cell is a thin semiconductor wafer made of two layers generally made of highly purified silicon (PV cells can be made of many different semiconductors but crystalline silicon is the most widely used). The layers have been doped with boron on one side and phosphorous on the other side, producing surplus of electrons on one side and a deficit of electrons on the other side.

When the wafer is bombarded by sunlight, photons in the sunlight knock off some of excess electrons, this makes a voltage difference between the two sides as the excess electrons try to move to the deficit side.

In silicon this voltage is .5 volt. Metallic contacts are made to both sides of the semiconductor. With an external circuit attached to the contacts, the electrons can get back to where they came from and current flows through the circuit. This PV cell has no storage capacity, it simply acts as an electron pump.

The amount of current is determined by the number of electrons that the solar photons knock off. Bigger cells, more efficient cells, or cells exposed to more intense sunlight will deliver more electrons.

Photovoltaic Modules

A PV module consists of many PV cells wired in parallel to increase current and in series to produce a higher voltage. 36 cell modules are the industry standard for large power production.

The module is encapsulated with tempered glass (or some other transparent material) on the front surface, and with a protective and waterproof material on the back surface. The edges are sealed for weatherproofing, and there is often an aluminum frame holding everything together in a mountable unit. In the back of the module there is a junction box, or wire leads, providing electrical connections.

There are currently four commercial production technologies for PV Modules:

Single Crystalline

This is the oldest and more expensive production technique, but it's also the most efficient sunlight conversion technology available. Module efficiency averages about 10% to 12%*

Polycrystalline or Multicrystalline

This has a slightly lower conversion efficiency compared to single crystalline but manufacturing costs are also lower. Module efficiency averages about 10% to 11%*

String Ribbon

This is a refinement of polycrystalline production, there is less work in production so costs are even lower. Module efficiency averages 7% to 8%*

Amorphous or Thin Film

Silicon material is vaporized and deposited on glass or stainless steel. The cost is lower than any other method. Module efficiency averages 5% to 7%*

*Check with manufacturer for module's accurate conversion efficiency.

Photovoltaic Panels

PV panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. The modular design of PV panels allows systems to grow as needs change. Modules of different manufacture can be intermixed without any problem, as long as all the modules have rated voltage output within 1.0 volt difference.

Photovoltaic Array

A PV Array consists of a number of individual PV modules or panels that have been wired together in a series and/or parallel to deliver the voltage and amperage a particular system requires. An array can be as small as a single pair of modules, or large enough to cover acres.

12 volt module is the industry standard for battery charging. Systems processing up to about 2000 watt-hours should be fine at 12 volts. Systems processing 2000 - 7000 watt-hours will function better at 24 volt. Systems running more than 7000 watt-hours should probably be running at 48 volts.

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DC cables are lifelines of the Solar Power Plant and interconnect modules to combiner boxes to inverters. These cables constitute only around 1-2% of total solar project cost but have a significant role and impact on the power output with poor design and/ or cable selection leading to material safety and performance issues.

DC cables are certainly different than the AC cables in construction and perform power evacuation with certain differences in their operation. Though significantly cheaper, Normal AC cables must not be used for DC PV power evacuation. Copper is the ideal material for string DC cables due to the metal’s high flexibility, superior current carrying capacity and better thermal performance. The DC cables should be made of flexible copper conductors. DC power does not demonstrate the skin effect like AC power and therefore any small change in the copper per unit length of the conductor leads to significant impact on the power evacuation capability of the cable.

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PV is emerging as a major power resource, steadily becoming more affordable and proving to be more reliable than utilities. Photovoltaic power promises a brighter, cleaner future for our children.

Using the technology we have today we could equal the entire electric production of the United States with photovoltaic power plants using only about 12,000 square miles.

In 1839, Edmund Becquerel discovered the process of using sunlight to produce an electric current in a solid material, but it wasn't until a century later that scientists eventually learned that the photovoltaic effect caused certain materials to convert light energy into electrical energy.

The photovoltaic effect is the basic principal process by which a PV cell converts sunlight into electricity. When light shines on a PV cell, it may be reflected, absorbed, or pass right through. The absorbed light generates electricity.

In the early 1950s, photovoltaic (PV) cells were developed as a spin-off of transistor technology. Very thin layers of pure silicon are impregnated with tiny amounts of other elements. When exposed to sunlight, small amounts of electricity are produced. Originally this technology was a costly source of power for satellites but it has steadily come down in price making it affordable to power homes and businesses.

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PV Module or Solar PV Module is an assembly of photovoltaic (PV) cells, also known as solar cells. To achieve a required voltage and current, a group of PV modules (also called PV panels) are wired into large array that called PV array. A PV module is the essential component of any PV system that converts sunlight directly into direct current (DC) electricity. PV modules can be wired together in series and/or parallel to deliver voltage and current in a particular system requires.

PV is emerging as a major power resource, steadily becoming more affordable and proving to be more reliable than utilities. Photovoltaic power promises a brighter, cleaner future for our children.

Using the technology we have today we could equal the entire electric production of the United States with photovoltaic power plants using only about 12,000 square miles.

In 1839, Edmund Becquerel discovered the process of using sunlight to produce an electric current in a solid material, but it wasn't until a century later that scientists eventually learned that the photovoltaic effect caused certain materials to convert light energy into electrical energy.

The post SOLAR MODULE MANUFACTURING UNIT appeared first on EIRI - eBooks and Project Reports.

Solar PV panel refers to a panel designed to absorb the sun's rays as a source of energy for generating electricity

A photovoltaic (in short PV) module is a packaged, connect assembly of typically 6×10 solar cells. Solar Photovoltaic panels constitute the solar array of a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions, and typically ranges from 100 to 365 watts A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes a panel or an array of solar modules, a solar inverter, and sometimes a battery and/or solar tracker and interconnection wiring.The price of solar power, together with batteries for storage, has continued to fall so that in many countries it is cheaper than ordinary fossil fuel electricity from the grid (there is "grid parity")., Solar panel refers to a panel designed to absorb the sun's rays as a source of energy for generating electricity or heating.A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connect assembly of typically 6×10 solar cells. Solar Photovoltaic panels constitute the solar array of a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions, and typically ranges from 100 to 365 watts

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Demand for electricity is continuing to grow fuelled by a growing population. India’s solar power generation capacity have more than tripled in 3 years to over 12 GW per targets raising energy generation from all renewable sources to 175 GW by 2022.

It has contributed around 39%—over 7,100 megawatts (MW)—to the overall capacity additions. Interestingly, the demand for electricity has grown faster than overall energy consumption, which in itself has grown faster than the world population

Tentative Contents of the Project report :

BEARING BARS
CROSS BARS
TYPES OF ELECTROFORGED GRATING
LIMITATIONS OF ELECTRO FORGE PROCESS GRATINGS.
USES AND APPLICATION
B.I.S SPECIFICATION
MARKET SURVEY
GRATING IMPORT DATA IN USA
MANUFACTURERS/SUPPLIERS
OF ELECTROFORGED GRATING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
OF ELECTROFORGED GRATING
SPOT RESSISTANCEWELDING
QUALITY CONTROL
INSPECTION & TESTING
FABRICATION OF GRATING
GALVANIZATION OF GRATINGS
PROCESS FLOW CHART
PLANT LAYOUT
PRINCIPLES OF PLANT LAYOUT
EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED
IN THE PROJECT REPORT
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULES
SUPPLIERS OF PLANT AND MACHINERIES

Along with financial details as under:
•    Capacity of the Project
•    Land & Side Development Exp.
•    Buildings Cost
•    Plant & Machineries
•    Misc. Fixed Assets
•    Technical Know how Fees & Exp.
•    Preliminary Expenses
•    Pre-operative Expenses
•    Provision for Contingencies
Below mentioned financial statements (Annexure) will be  for 5 to 10 Years
•    Annexure:: Cost of Project and Means of Finance
•    Annexure:: Output, Profitability and Cash Flow Chart
•    Annexure:: Assessment of Working Capital requirements
•    Annexure:: Sources of Finance
•    Annexure:: Balance Sheets
•    Annexure:: Break-Even Analysis and profitability analysis.
•    Annexure:: Quantitative Details-Output/Sales/Stocks
•    Annexure:: Sales Realisation
•    Annexure:: Raw Material Cost
•    Annexure:: Other Raw Material Cost
•    Annexure:: Packing Material Cost
•    Annexure:: Consumables, Store etc.,
•    Annexure:: Employees Expenses
•    Annexure:: Fuel Expenses
•    Annexure:: Power/Electricity Expenses
•    Annexure:: Repairs & Maintenance Exp.
•    Annexure:: Other Mfg. Expenses
•    Annexure:: Administration Expenses
•    Annexure:: Selling Expenses
•    Annexure:: Depreciation Charges - Profitability
•    Annexure:: Depreciation Charges
•    Annexure:: Interest and Repayment - Term Loans
•    Annexure:: Tax on Profit
•    Annexure:: Assumptions for Profitability workings
•    Annexure:: Assessment of Working Capital

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INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF LEAD ACID BATTERY
CONSTRUCTION OF LEAD ACID BATTERY
LEAD ACID BATTERY CONTAINER
LEAD ACID BATTERY PLATES
STRUCTURE OF PLANTE PLATE
FAURE PLATE
PARTS OF LEAD ACID BATTERY
B.I.S SPECIFICATION
MARKET SURVEY
GLOBAL MARKET SURVEY
THE GLOBAL LEAD-ACID BATTERY INDUSTRY
THE LEAD-ACID BATTERY INDUSTRY IN CHINA
RAW MATERIALS FOR LEAD-ACID BATTERIES
MANUFACTURERS/SUPPLIERS/EXPORTERS OF LEAD ACID BATTERY
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
TRANSPORTATION
STORAGE
DESULPHURIZATION
PRODUCTION OF CONTAINER AND COVER
MANUFATURING PROCESS OF PLATES
CASTING OF GRID
PROCESS
TRIMMING OF GRID
QUALITY CONTROL
FINISHING & DESPATCHING:
PLANT LAYOUT
SUPPLIERS OF RAW MATERIALS
LEAD ACID BATTERY SCRAP
SODA ASH
COKE
ANTIMONEY POWDER
FIBRE FLOCK
CARBON BLACK
BARIUM SULPHATE
BATTERY SEPARATOR
SULFURIC ACID
SUPPLIERS OF COMPELETE PLANT FOR RECYCLING LEAD ACID BATTERY
SUPPLIERS OF LEAD ACID BATTERY MANUFACTURING PLANT
INDIAN SUPPLIERS OF LEAD ACID BATTERY RECYCLING PLANT
EOT CRANES
POWER TRANSFORMERS
COOLING TOWER
EFFULENT TREATMENT PLANT
MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENTS
AIR COMPRESSOR
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENTS
AIR CONDITIONING EQUIPMENTS
PLATFORM WEIGHING MACHINE
ELECTRICAL PANEL

APPENDIX – A:

1.      COST OF PLANT ECONOMICS
2.      LAND & BUILDING
3.      PLANT AND MACHINERY
4.      FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT
5.      RAW MATERIAL
6.      SALARY AND WAGES
7.      UTILITIES AND OVERHEADS
8.      TOTAL WORKING CAPITAL
9.      COST OF PRODUCTION
10.      PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
11.      BREAK EVEN POINT
12.      RESOURCES OF FINANCE
13.      INTEREST CHART
14.      DEPRECIATION CHART
15.      CASH FLOW STATEMENT
16.      PROJECTED BALANCE SHEET

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Basic Working Principle

The Sun’s rays fall on the collector panel (a component of solar water heating system). A black absorbing surface (absorber) inside the collector absorbs solar radiation and transfers the heat energy to water flowing through it. Heated water is collected in a tank which is insulated to prevent heat loss. Circulation of water from the tank through the collectors and back to the tank continues either automatically due to thermo siphon effect or through a circulation pump.

INTRODUCTION
BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLE
TYPES OF SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM
GENERALLY THREE TYPES OF SOLAR WATER HEATER ARE AVAILABLE
IN THE MARKET
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF EVACUATED SOLAR TUBE SYSTEM
BENEFITS OF SOLAR EVACUATED TUBE SYSTEMS
COMPONENTS OF SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM
(A) FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR
(B) EVACUATED TUBE COLLECTOR
STORAGE TANK
PIPING:
MOUNTING:
SALIENT FEATURES OF SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM
ADVANTAGES OF SWH
LIMITATIONS OF SWH
DOMESTIC SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM
A) THERMOSYPHON SYSTEM
B) FORCED CIRCULATION SYSTEM
USES AND APPLICATIONS
SOME OF THE MAJOR APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR WATER HEATING
SYSTEMS ARE AS FOLLOWS:-
B.I.S. SPECIFICATION
MANUFACTURING PROCESS FLAT
PLAT SOLAR WATER HEATER
(A) FABRICATION PROCESS OF COLLECTOR
(C) FABRICATION PROCESS OF STORAGE TANK
(C) STANDS FOR COLLECTOR AND TANK
QUALITY CONTROL
(A) FOR COLLECTOR
COVER PLATE:
COLLECTOR BOX:
ABSORBER:
COLLECTOR BOX INSULATION:
GASKETS AND GROMMETS:
ASSEMBLY OF COLLECTORS:
STORAGE TANK (HOT WATER):
TESTING –
MARKING –
PROCESS FLOW CHART
GLOBAL MARKET POSITION
COUNTRIES WITH THE HIGHEST SOLAR WATER HEATING CAPACITY
SOLAR THERMAL HEATING AND COOLING
GLAZED AND UNGLAZED SYSTEMS
CHINA
UNITED STATES
GERMANY
TURKEY
SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEMS
(GLOBAL EXPERIENCES)
INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR SWHS
STATUS AND TRENDS: GLOBAL AND INDIAN EXPERIENCES
EXPERIENCE OF UNDP–GEF WITH SWHS PROJECTS
EXPERIENCE OF REEEP WITH SWHS PROJECTS
CURRENT STATUS IN INDIA
POLICIES THAT INFLUENCE SWHS
ESCO-BASED MODEL FOR SWH PROMOTION
INDIA’S POLICIES FOR SWHS AND THE JAWAHARLAL NEHRU
NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION
UNDP–GEF PROJECT ON SOLAR WATER HEATING IN INDIA
BARRIERS IN WIDESPREAD ADOPTION OF SWHS
MARKET BARRIERS
TECHNICAL BARRIERS
CONCLUSIONS
SOLAR WATER HEATER MANUFACTURING
COMPANIES IN INDIA
TOP 10 INDIAN SOLAR WATER HEATER MANUFACTURERS & SUPPLIERS
INTER SOLAR SYSTEM – BEST SOLAR WATER HEATER MANUFACTURING COMPANY IN INDIA
PRICE OF INTER SOLAR SYSTEMS SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEMS
IN INDIA
RACOLD SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM
MBSL – SOLAR WATER HEATER MANUFACTURING COMPANY
SUPPLIERS OF RAW MATERIALS
SS SHEET
SUPPLIERS OF COPPER SHEET AND COPPER TUBE
ALUMINIUM SECTIONS
ALUMINIUM SHEET
SUPPLIERS OF G.I PIPE FITTING
SUPPLIERS OF GAKET AND GROMATES
SUPPLIERS OF GLASS WOOL
SUPPLIERS OF COMPLETE PLANT AND MACHINERIES
PUNCHING PRESS
POWER PRESS
SHEARING MACHINE
ROLLING MACHINE
FLYPRESS
BENDING MACHINE
MIG WELDING MACHINE
ARC WELDING MACHINE
PAINTING EQUIPMENT
POWER TRANSFORMERS
ELECTRICAL PANEL
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENTS
AIR COMPRESSORS
WEIGHING MACHINE (PLATFORM TYPE)
MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENTS
FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENTS

APPENDIX – A:

1. COST OF PLANT ECONOMICS
2. LAND & BUILDING
3. PLANT AND MACHINERY
4. FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT
5. RAW MATERIAL
6. SALARY AND WAGES
7. UTILITIES AND OVERHEADS
8. TOTAL WORKING CAPITAL
9. COST OF PRODUCTION
10. PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
11. BREAK EVEN POINT
12. RESOURCES OF FINANCE
13. INTEREST CHART
14. DEPRECIATION CHART
15. CASH FLOW STATEMENT
16. PROJECTED BALANCE SHEET

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